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Indus Valley Civilization for UPSC Prelims

1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, flourishing around 2600–1900 BCE. It is renowned for its advanced urban planning, sophisticated drainage systems, and extensive trade networks. The civilization is a key topic for UPSC Prelims due to its contributions to early Indian history and its influence on subsequent cultures.

2. Chronology and Phases

The IVC is divided into three phases based on archaeological evidence:

Phase	Timeline	Characteristics
Early Harappan	3300–2600 BCE	Proto-urban settlements, early agriculture, pottery, and trade (e.g., Mehrgarh transition)
Mature Harappan	2600–1900 BCE	Peak urbanization, large cities, standardized weights, seals, and extensive trade
Late Harappan	1900–1300 BCE	Decline of urban centers, rural settlements, and cultural transformation

3. Geographical Extent and Major Sites

The IVC spanned across modern-day northwest India, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan, covering approximately 1.5 million square kilometers. It was centered along the Indus River and its tributaries, with extensions to the Ghaggar-Hakra River and coastal regions.

Major Sites

Site	Location	Significance
Harappa	Punjab, Pakistan	Early discovery site, evidence of granaries and urban planning
Mohenjo-Daro	Sindh, Pakistan	UNESCO World Heritage Site, Great Bath, advanced drainage system
Dholavira	Gujarat, India	Unique water management, large reservoirs, and signboards
Lothal	Gujarat, India	World’s earliest known dockyard, maritime trade hub
Rakhigarhi	Haryana, India	Largest Harappan site, evidence of planned streets and burials

Core Areas

• Westernmost site: Sutkagen Dor (Pakistan-Iran border)
• Easternmost site: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
• Northernmost site: Manda (Jammu & Kashmir)
• Southernmost site: Daimabad (Maharashtra)

4. Urban Planning and Architecture

The IVC is renowned for its sophisticated urban planning, characterized by grid-patterned streets, standardized burnt-brick construction, and advanced civic amenities.

• City Layout: Cities were divided into a citadel (raised platform for administrative/religious structures) and a lower town for residential areas.
• Drainage System: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had covered drains and soak pits, indicating advanced sanitation.
• Buildings: Houses were made of standardized burnt bricks (ratio 4:2:1), with courtyards, wells, and bathrooms.
• Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A large, watertight structure, possibly used for ritual bathing.
• Water Management (Dholavira): Complex reservoirs and channels for water conservation in an arid region.

5. Economy and Trade

Agriculture

The IVC relied on agriculture, supported by fertile Indus floodplains. Crops included wheat, barley, cotton, rice, and pulses. Evidence of plowing and irrigation is found at Kalibangan.

Trade and Commerce

The IVC had extensive trade networks, both internal and external:

• Internal Trade: Standardized weights and measures (e.g., cubical stone weights) facilitated trade across sites.
• External Trade: Contact with Mesopotamia, Oman, and Bahrain, exporting cotton, beads, and timber, and importing metals and precious stones.
• Ports: Lothal’s dockyard and Dholavira’s coastal proximity indicate maritime trade.

Crafts and Industries

The IVC excelled in bead-making (carnelian, agate), pottery (red ware with black designs), and metallurgy (copper, bronze, gold). Shell and ivory work were also prominent.

6. Society and Religion

Social Structure

The IVC likely had a stratified society, with evidence of elite residences in citadels and simpler houses in lower towns. No clear evidence of a centralized monarchy exists, suggesting a possible oligarchic or decentralized administration.

Religion

Religious practices are inferred from artifacts:

• Mother Goddess: Terracotta figurines suggest worship of a fertility deity.
• Pashupati Seal: Depicts a proto-Shiva figure surrounded by animals, indicating possible animal worship or yogic traditions.
• Fire Altars: Found at Kalibangan, suggesting Vedic-like rituals.
• Burial Practices: Cemeteries at Harappa and Rakhigarhi show simple burials with grave goods.

7. Art, Crafts, and Technology

Art

IVC art includes seals, pottery, and figurines. Seals with animal motifs (e.g., unicorn, bull) and script are iconic. The "Dancing Girl" bronze statue from Mohenjo-Daro showcases advanced metallurgy and aesthetics.

Crafts

Bead-making, shell work, and pottery were highly developed. Red pottery with black motifs and perforated jars are distinctive.

Technology

Technological advancements included:

• Standardized bricks and weights
• Bronze tools and ornaments
• Advanced drainage and water management systems

8. Script and Language

The IVC developed a unique script, found on seals, pottery, and copper tablets. It consists of 400–600 characters, written from right to left. Despite extensive study, the script remains undeciphered, and the language is unknown, though Dravidian or Proto-Indo-Aryan origins are hypothesized.

9. Decline and Legacy

Decline (1900–1300 BCE)

The decline of the IVC is attributed to multiple factors:

• Environmental Changes: Drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and climate shifts disrupted agriculture.
• Floods and Earthquakes: Evidence of flooding at Mohenjo-Daro and tectonic activity at Dholavira.
• Trade Decline: Disruption of trade with Mesopotamia weakened the economy.
• Invasions: The Aryan invasion theory is debated and largely discredited; no clear evidence exists.

Legacy

The IVC influenced later cultures through:

• Urban planning techniques adopted in subsequent settlements
• Agricultural practices and crops (e.g., cotton) carried forward to Vedic and later periods
• Cultural continuity in pottery and religious motifs

10. Significance for UPSC

The IVC is a critical topic for UPSC Prelims due to its contributions to early Indian history:

• Cultural Foundation: Laid the groundwork for urban life and societal organization in South Asia.
• Economic Innovations: Standardized weights and trade networks influenced later economies.
• Archaeological Importance: Sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro provide insights into ancient technology and culture.
• Link to Later Periods: Continuity with Vedic and Mauryan periods in agriculture, crafts, and urban traditions.

UPSC Preparation Tips

1. Memorize the timeline and phases of the IVC.
2. Focus on major sites (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Rakhigarhi) and their unique features.
3. Understand urban planning, trade, and religious practices for descriptive questions.
4. Link IVC to prehistoric cultures (e.g., Mehrgarh) and later civilizations (e.g., Vedic period).
5. Practice map-based questions to locate key sites.
6. Revise key artifacts (seals, Dancing Girl, Great Bath) and their significance.