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British expansion in India (c. 17th–19th centuries CE) transformed the subcontinent from a patchwork of regional powers into a colony under the British Crown. Beginning with the East India Company’s trade ventures, the British leveraged military victories, strategic treaties, and administrative policies to establish dominance. Key battles, such as Plassey and Buxar, and policies like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse, were instrumental in consolidating British rule. This topic is critical for UPSC Prelims due to its impact on modern Indian history.
The British arrived in India as traders in the 17th century, establishing factories under the East India Company. By the 18th century, the decline of the Mughal Empire and regional conflicts enabled the British to seize political power through battles and diplomacy. By 1858, after suppressing the Revolt of 1857, the British Crown assumed direct control.
| Phase | Timeline | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Early Trade | 1600–1757 CE | Establishment of factories, Anglo-French rivalry |
| Political Dominance | 1757–1858 CE | Battles of Plassey and Buxar, Subsidiary Alliance, annexations |
| Crown Rule | 1858–1947 CE | Government of India Act 1858, consolidation of British administration |
Founded in 1600 CE, the English East India Company established trading posts (factories) at Surat (1612), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). They traded in spices, textiles, and indigo, competing with the Portuguese, Dutch, and French.
The Carnatic Wars (1746–1763) between the British and French culminated in British victory at the Battle of Wandiwash (1760), securing their dominance in South India.
| Battle | Year | Key Players | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Battle of Plassey | 1757 | Robert Clive vs. Siraj-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) | British victory, control over Bengal |
| Battle of Buxar | 1764 | Hector Munro vs. Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, Shah Alam II | British control over Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha |
| Third Battle of Panipat | 1761 | Marathas vs. Ahmad Shah Abdali | Maratha defeat weakened their power, aiding British expansion |
| Anglo-Mysore Wars | 1767–1799 | Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan vs. British | British victory after Fourth War (1799), annexation of Mysore |
| Anglo-Maratha Wars | 1775–1818 | Marathas vs. British | British victory in Third War (1818), control over Deccan |
| Treaty | Year | Parties | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Treaty of Allahabad | 1765 | British, Mughal Emperor, Nawab of Awadh | Diwani rights (revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha to British |
| Treaty of Seringapatam | 1792 | British, Tipu Sultan | Tipu ceded half his territory, paid indemnity |
| Treaty of Bassein | 1802 | British, Peshwa Baji Rao II | Marathas accepted Subsidiary Alliance, British control over Pune |
| Treaty of Amritsar | 1809 | British, Ranjit Singh | Fixed Sutlej as the boundary for Sikh expansion |
| Treaty of Sagauli | 1816 | British, Gurkhas | Nepal ceded territories, accepted British resident |
Introduced by Lord Wellesley (1798), this policy required Indian states to accept British troops in their territory, pay for their maintenance, and follow British foreign policy. States like Hyderabad, Mysore, and Awadh were subdued under this system.
Introduced by Lord Dalhousie (1848), this policy allowed the British to annex states without a natural heir. Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854) were annexed under this doctrine.
The British introduced a centralized bureaucracy under governors-general. Key reforms included the Regulating Act (1773), Pitt’s India Act (1784), and Charter Acts (1813, 1833) to regulate Company rule. Land revenue systems like Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari were implemented.
The British introduced revenue systems like Permanent Settlement (Bengal), Ryotwari (South India), and Mahalwari (North India), leading to heavy taxation and peasant distress.
British policies favored British goods, destroying Indian textile industries. India became a supplier of raw materials (cotton, indigo) and a market for British manufactured goods.
The British built railways, telegraph lines, and roads to facilitate trade and military movement, though primarily for colonial interests.
British policies abolished practices like sati (1829) and supported widow remarriage (1856). Missionaries promoted Western education, influencing Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
The Charter Act of 1813 allocated funds for education. Macaulay’s Minute (1835) promoted English education, leading to the establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857).
Western ideas of liberty and equality inspired Indian intellectuals, but colonial policies also sparked cultural revivalism and resistance.
Regional rulers like Tipu Sultan, Marathas, and Sikhs resisted British expansion. Tribal revolts (e.g., Santhal Rebellion, 1855) and peasant uprisings (e.g., Indigo Revolt, 1859) also occurred.
The Revolt of 1857, sparked by the use of greased cartridges, was a widespread uprising involving sepoys, princes, and civilians. Key leaders included Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, and Bahadur Shah Zafar. The British suppressed it, leading to the end of Company rule.
British rule unified India administratively, setting the stage for modern governance but at the cost of sovereignty. The Revolt of 1857 marked the transition to Crown rule.
Colonial exploitation drained India’s wealth, causing economic stagnation. However, infrastructure like railways laid the foundation for modern connectivity.
British reforms and Western education inspired the Indian Renaissance and nationalist movements, leading to the freedom struggle.