StudyNotesHub

Introduction

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, was a major uprising against British rule in India. It marked a turning point in Indian history and led to significant changes in British colonial policy.

Map showing major centers of the 1857 Revolt

Causes of the Revolt

Political Causes

• Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): Annexation of Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), etc.
• Disrespect to Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar (Pensioned, title of 'King of Delhi' to be removed after his death)
• Annexation of Awadh (1856) on grounds of misgovernment
• Disbanding of princely armies creating unemployment

Economic Causes

• Heavy taxation on peasants (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System)
• Destruction of traditional handicrafts and industries (De-industrialization)
• High land revenue demands
• Economic drain of wealth to Britain

Military Causes

• Discrimination in pay and promotions (Indian soldiers paid less than British soldiers)
• General Service Enlistment Act (1856) required sepoys to serve overseas (against religious beliefs)
• Withdrawal of foreign service allowance (Batta)
• Racial discrimination and ill-treatment of Indian soldiers

Social & Religious Causes

• Social reforms (Abolition of Sati, Widow Remarriage Act) seen as interference in Indian customs
• Christian missionary activities
• Taxation on religious institutions
• Rumors about mixing bone dust in atta (flour) and cow/pig fat in cartridges

Immediate Cause

• Introduction of Enfield rifle with cartridges greased with animal fat (beef and pork)
• Sepoys had to bite the cartridge to load the rifle (offensive to Hindus and Muslims)
• Mangal Pandey's rebellion at Barrackpore (March 29, 1857)
• Court-martial and execution of Mangal Pandey (April 8, 1857)

Major Events

Outbreak at Meerut (May 10, 1857)

• 85 sepoys of 3rd Cavalry refused to use greased cartridges
• Court-martialed and sentenced to imprisonment
• Next day, Indian soldiers revolted, killed British officers, freed imprisoned sepoys
• Marched to Delhi the next day

Capture of Delhi (May 11, 1857)

• Rebels reached Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of India
• British residents killed, telegraph lines cut
• Siege of Delhi by British forces from June-August 1857
• Delhi recaptured on September 20, 1857 after heavy fighting
• Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to Rangoon (died in 1862)

Siege of Lucknow (June-November 1857)

• Begum Hazrat Mahal declared her son Birjis Qadir as Nawab
• British Residency besieged from July 1, 1857
• First relief by Havelock and Outram (September 25, 1857)
• Final recapture by Colin Campbell (March 1858)

Kanpur Massacre (June 1857)

• Led by Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II)
• British surrendered under promise of safe passage (June 27, 1857)
• Massacre at Satichaura Ghat and Bibighar
• Recaptured by British under Havelock (July 16, 1857)
• Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal

Jhansi Resistance (1857-1858)

• Rani Lakshmibai joined rebels after initial reluctance
• Led defense of Jhansi against British (March-April 1858)
• Escaped to Kalpi, joined Tatya Tope
• Died fighting at Gwalior (June 17, 1858)

Other Centers of Revolt

Key Leaders

Consequences

Political Changes

• Government of India Act 1858:
  • East India Company rule ended
  • British Crown took direct control
  • Secretary of State for India created
  • Viceroy replaced Governor-General
• Doctrine of Lapse abolished
• Policy of annexation stopped
• Treaty with Princely States: Promised non-interference

Military Reorganization

• Ratio of British to Indian soldiers increased (1:2 in Bengal Army)
• Artillery exclusively under British control
• More Gurkhas, Sikhs recruited (considered "martial races")
• Strict segregation between European and Indian troops

Social & Economic Impact

• Policy of divide and rule strengthened
• Distrust of educated Indians increased
• Landlords and princes became loyal supporters of British
• Heavy financial burden due to suppression of revolt

Nature of the Revolt

Historians have debated whether the revolt was:

As a Sepoy Mutiny

• Limited to army personnel
• No participation from most of India (South, Punjab, Bengal unaffected)
• No clear nationalist ideology

As First War of Independence

• Participation of different sections (peasants, artisans, rulers)
• Hindu-Muslim unity seen in many areas
• Attempt to overthrow foreign rule
• Later nationalists saw it as inspiration

UPSC Prelims Questions

1. Which of the following was NOT a cause of the Revolt of 1857?
   1. Doctrine of Lapse
   2. Introduction of Enfield rifles
   3. Ilbert Bill controversy
   4. General Service Enlistment Act
2. Who among the following was the last Mughal emperor?
   1. Akbar II
   2. Bahadur Shah I
   3. Bahadur Shah Zafar
   4. Shah Alam II
3. Consider the following pairs:
   1. Delhi : Bahadur Shah Zafar
   2. Jhansi : Kunwar Singh
   3. Lucknow : Begum Hazrat Mahal
   Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
   1. 1 and 2 only
   2. 1 and 3 only
   3. 3 only
   4. 1, 2 and 3
4. The 'Government of India Act, 1858' provided for:
   1. Abolition of East India Company's rule
   2. Creation of Secretary of State for India
   3. Establishment of Indian Civil Service
   4. Both (a) and (b)