Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries – Complete Class 7 SST Notes

"The 11th and 12th centuries represent a major turning point because new powers from Central Asia, especially the Ghurids, began taking control of northern India."

The 11th and 12th centuries were a time of great change in India. New powers from Central Asia entered the subcontinent, old kingdoms fought for control, and new dynasties rose to prominence. At the same time, Indian culture, trade, and learning continued to flourish. This chapter explores this fascinating period of transition—a time when the tides of history were turning.

1. Introduction

The 11th and 12th centuries were a period of profound transition in Indian history. While previous Arab incursions into north India had little overall impact, Turkic forces during this period advanced far deeper into the region, even when confronted with determined resistance from local kingdoms.

This period was marked by wars and destruction, starting and ending with invasions. However, many Indian rulers thrived, defeating invaders and rivals, launching naval campaigns, building impressive monuments, and extending India's influence overseas. It was also a time when many poets, philosophers, saints, and scientists created works that continue to illuminate today.

2. What You Will Learn

• Why the 11th and 12th centuries are called a period of transition
• About the Ghaznavid invasions and Mahmud of Ghazni's campaigns
• The contributions of scholars like Al-Biruni and Bhaskaracharya
• About the kingdoms of Eastern India (Senas, Eastern Gangas)
• The achievements of the Cholas, Kakatiyas, and Hoysalas in South India
• About King Bhoja and the Paramara dynasty
• The rise of the Ghurids and the Battles of Tarain
• The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
• How governance, trade, and culture developed during this period

3. Why a Period of Transition?

The 11th and 12th centuries represented a major turning point because new powers from Central Asia, especially the Ghurids, began taking control of northern India. This marked the arrival of lasting foreign influence in the region.

Two Significant Changes

• Muslim rule established itself in Delhi, fundamentally altering the political landscape of northern India.
• Major centres of knowledge like Nalanda faced destruction, disrupting systems of learning that had flourished for centuries.

Continuity Despite Change

Yet change was not the whole story. Indian culture, literature, and scientific thinking did not stop. Scholars such as Bhaskaracharya continued producing significant works. Trade also persisted and even grew, with commerce flowing both within India and with distant places like China and Southeast Asia.

This balance of dramatic political shifts alongside continuous cultural and economic activity makes this period genuinely transitional—some things changed forever while others proved remarkably resilient.

4. The Ghaznavid Invasions

The Hindu Shahis and the Khyber Pass

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Hindu Shahis, a powerful dynasty, ruled in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, extending all the way to Punjab. They successfully resisted several attempted invasions with the help of other Indian rulers, notably because they controlled the Khyber Pass.

The Khyber Pass, a main Hindu Kush gateway, was used by invaders and for 2,500 years served as a trade and travel route to Central Asia. It was also used by monks and Buddhist scholars, connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.

The Rise of the Ghaznavids

Ultimately, the Ghaznavids, a Turkic power whose capital was Ghazna (today's Ghazni in Afghanistan), conquered the Hindu Shahis. Their ruler, Mahmud (often referred to as 'Mahmud of Ghazni'), defeated the Shahi ruler Jayapala and later his son Anandapala in 1008 CE in northern Punjab.

This victory gave Mahmud easy access to the Indus plains and beyond.

5. Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni was a Turkish ruler who led 17 raids into India between 1000–1027 CE. He adopted the title 'sultan', meaning 'authority' or 'power' in Arabic, a term used for a sovereign ruler or king.

His Campaigns

Mahmud conducted 17 campaigns in India, returning to Ghazni with huge amounts of booty (jewels, gold coins, etc.) after looting temples and public places. His success was due to his army's rapid marches and daring cavalry attacks with archers on horseback.

Temples Destroyed

• The magnificent temple at Mathura (1018)
• Temples in Kannauj
• The Somanatha Shiva temple in Gujarat (1026)

Plunder was the chief motive, as large temples held immense wealth. Besides plunder, Mahmud was keen to spread his version of Islam, destroying temples and building mosques. His campaigns killed tens of thousands of civilians and captured many prisoners, including children, who were sold in Central Asian slave markets.

Death and Aftermath

Mahmud died in Ghazni in 1030, aged 58. Around then, his nephew Salar Masud attacked the Gangetic region but was killed at Bahraich (in modern-day Uttar Pradesh) by the local ruler, Suhaldev.

6. Al-Biruni: The Great Scholar

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was a Persian scholar (mathematician, astronomer, historian, linguist) from Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan). He accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni on his campaign into India around 1017.

His Contributions

• Learned Sanskrit and studied Indian texts
• Engaged with Indian scholars
• Wrote an encyclopaedic survey of Indian philosophy, literature, religion, geography, and sciences, comparing it with Greek and Islamic traditions
• Compiled works on mathematics and astronomy from scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Varahamihira
• Translated Patanjali's Yogasutras into Arabic

Al-Biruni noticed that Mahmud's campaigns devastated India, scattering its people and driving its sciences to safe regions like Kashmir and Varanasi.

7. Bhaskaracharya: The Great Mathematician

Bhaskara II, better known as Bhaskaracharya (born 1114, probably in Maharashtra), was one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers.

His Famous Works (all in Sanskrit)

His works were highly influential and translated into Persian during the Mughal period. Europe would have taken a few centuries to rediscover some of his pioneering techniques.

8. Eastern India: Senas and Eastern Gangas

The Sena Dynasty

While north India suffered Ghaznavid raids, eastern India experienced a different scenario in the 11th century. After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty became the dominant power in Bengal, with their capital at Nadiya.

• Their relations with neighbouring rulers of Kamarupa (Assam) and Kalinga (present-day Odisha) were a blend of friendliness and conflict.
• The Senas patronised Hindu thought and literature, including the poet Jayadeva, author of the famous Gitagovindam, which tells the story of Krishna and Radha.
• They promoted Hinduism, unlike their predecessors, the Palas, who patronised Buddhist institutions.

The Eastern Ganga Dynasty

Moving south along the coast into Kalinga, we come across the Eastern Ganga dynasty.

• They formed marriage alliances with the Cholas, but also fought battles with them and with other neighbouring powers.
• By the late 12th century, the Eastern Gangas became one of the most stable and influential kingdoms of eastern India.
• Their territory stretched "from the Ganga to the Godavari," according to their inscriptions.
• The dynasty began the construction of the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
• In the mid-13th century, they also built the magnificent Sun Temple at Konark.

9. The Deccan and South India

The south saw the flourishing of several dynasties, even amidst conflicts.

The Western and Eastern Chalukyas

• Western Chalukyas were a major power in the Deccan, with their capital at Kalyani (or Kalyana). Their rule extended north to the Narmada River.
• Eastern Chalukyas had their capital at Vengi. They had matrimonial alliances with the Cholas but became the object of fierce wars between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas.
• The Western Chalukyas eventually faded, and the Kakatiyas and Hoysalas grew stronger, eventually replacing them.

10. The Cholas: Masters of the Seas

The Cholas were a powerful and influential dynasty in present-day Tamil Nadu, with their capital cities at Thanjavur (Tanjavur), Gangaikondacholapuram, and Kanchi (Kanchipuram).

Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014)

• Conquered parts of present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• Made a famous conquest of the 'islands of the sea' (Maldives).
• Conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka.
• Built the Brihadishvara (Rajarajeshvaram) temple at Thanjavur, a masterpiece of architecture.

Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044)

• Rajaraja's son, ruled for nearly 30 years and expanded the empire further.
• Conquered parts of present-day Odisha and Bengal.
• Took the title 'Gangaikondachola' ('the Chola who seized or brought Ganga').
• Led a naval expedition against the Shrivijaya Empire, capturing their capital to protect sea routes and trade relations with China, but did not occupy the empire.

Chola Administration and Legacy

• Built extensive roads for better communication.
• Built canals, tanks, and artificial lakes for irrigation.
• Set up local assemblies called 'ur' and 'sabha' to manage villages.
• Engaged in extensive conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms (Western Chalukyas, Pandyas, rulers of Sri Lanka), which drained their treasury.
• The empire declined and was absorbed by the Pandyas by the 13th century.

11. Kakatiyas and Hoysalas

The Kakatiyas

• Established control during the 12th century over much of present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, with Orugallu (today's Warangal) as their capital.
• Built a fort with impressive stone gateways (Toranas).
• Patronised Telugu literature, and their kings composed literature in Sanskrit.
• Promoted village self-governance and developed an efficient revenue and irrigation system.

The Hoysalas

• Originated in southern Karnataka and eventually extended their sway over most of present-day Karnataka.
• According to a legend, their founder Sala was commanded by an ascetic to "strike Sala" ("Poy, Sala" in old Kannada) when a tiger appeared, leading to the name 'Hoysala'.
• Their capitals were Velapura (today's Belur) and Dvarasamudra (Halebidu).
• They broke free from Chalukya overlordship under King Vishnuvardhana.
• Their enduring legacy lies in a distinctive temple architecture, featuring intricately carved stone pillars, sculptures, and panels.
• Three Hoysala temples have been recognised by UNESCO as world heritage monuments.

12. The Paramaras and King Bhoja

The Paramaras originally served as vassals under the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. They became an independent power in Malwa (present-day Madhya Pradesh) in the later half of the 10th century, with Dhara as their capital.

King Bhoja (ruled from 1010)

• Led numerous campaigns and helped other Indian rulers resist Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Was renowned for his efficient governance and public works.
• Founded the cities of Bhojpur and Bhopal (named from 'Bhojpal' – 'the dam' or 'fort of Bhoja').
• Was a generous patron of scholars and promoted Sanskrit literature.
• Was a noted scholar and prolific author whose works include a long treatise on architecture, town planning, and mechanical devices called Samararigana Sutradhara.
• Constructed the impressive Bhojeshwar Temple.

After Bhoja's death in 1055, the Paramaras declined due to conflicts with neighbouring powers.

13. The Ghurids: A Turning Point

After Mahmud of Ghazni's empire disintegrated, the Ghurids, who were originally vassals of the Ghaznavids, seized control of Ghazni and built up their power. Their leader, Muhammad Ghuri (also called 'Muhammad of Ghor'), began to expand into India.

Muhammad Ghuri's Campaigns

• Conquered Punjab and Sindh but was defeated in 1178 at Mount Abu by Chalukya King Mularaja II, led by Queen Naikidevi.
• His forces encountered the Chahamanas (also known as Chauhans), a powerful Rajput dynasty with their capital at Ajayameru (today's Ajmer).
• The Chahamana ruler Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad Ghuri in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• The next year, in 1192, Muhammad returned with a larger army and defeated and executed Prithviraja III in the Second Battle of Tarain.
• Muhammad Ghuri captured Delhi and returned to Ghazni, leaving his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to secure the territory.

14. The Battles of Tarain

The Battles of Tarain (1191 and 1192) were fought between Muhammad Ghuri and Prithviraj Chauhan (Prithviraja III), the Chahamana ruler, near Tarain (now in Haryana).

The Second Battle of Tarain was a decisive battle that led to the establishment of the Ghurid foothold in North India and paved the way for the Delhi Sultanate.

15. The Delhi Sultanate

When Muhammad Ghuri died in 1206, his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak declared himself Sultan of Delhi, founding the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty and beginning over three centuries of Delhi Sultanate rule.

The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak and several successors had risen from slave-soldiers to become powerful sultans.
• Iltutmish, one of this dynasty's strongest rulers, consolidated Delhi as the capital and issued the silver tanka coin.
• Razia Sultan, Iltutmish's daughter, ruled Delhi from 1236 to 1240, becoming the first and only woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate. She was known for her capable administration, though many nobles resisted being ruled by a woman.

Later Dynasties

• Khalji Dynasty – Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) was known for his market-price controls and for successfully repelling repeated Mongol invasions.
• Tughlaq Dynasty – Muhammad bin Tughlaq is remembered for his controversial decision to shift the capital to Daulatabad and for an experimental token currency. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built canals, cities, and public works.

Bakhtiyar Khilji's Campaigns

A general of Muhammad's, Bakhtiyar Khilji, led campaigns in eastern India, conquering Bihar and Bengal.

• He destroyed major Buddhist monasteries and universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila, leading to the decline of India's major Buddhist learning centres.
• Bakhtiyar Khilji seized Bengal from the Senas but failed in his Tibet expedition in 1205, retreating after heavy losses.

Muhammad Ghuri and Bakhtiyar both died in 1206, with their northern Indian territories retained by Muhammad's generals.

16. Governance, Trade and Cultural Life

Governance and Administration

• Powerful kingdoms required an organised system to collect tributes and taxes to support their large armies (which included elephants, horses, and archers).
• Muhammad Ghuri introduced a more centralised system, granting temporary land to officers in exchange for revenue collection and military service. This was the beginning of the Iqta system.

Trade and Economy

• Despite political upheavals, India's trade with China and Southeast Asia continued to expand.
• Coins and pottery from overseas regions have been found, and many locations on India's west coast had seaports and shipyards manufacturing seafaring ships.
• Domestic and foreign trade was driven by influential merchant guilds.
• Agriculture remained the backbone of the economy.

Cultural Life

• The arts, literature, science, and other cultural aspects flourished in this period.
• The Chalukya ruler Someshvara III wrote Manasollasa, an encyclopaedia covering subjects from astronomy and architecture to music, cooking, and royal life.
• Monumental temples were built across India, including the Brihadishvara Temple (Cholas), Jagannath Temple at Puri and Sun Temple at Konark (Eastern Gangas), and the Hoysala temples (Karnataka).
• A composite culture began to emerge from the interaction of indigenous Indian and incoming Central Asian/Persian traditions in language, art, architecture, and music.

17. Important Terms and Definitions

18. Important People and Places

19. Chapter Summary

The 11th and 12th centuries were a period of transition in Indian history. Turkic forces from Central Asia, especially the Ghaznavids and Ghurids, advanced deep into northern India.

Mahmud of Ghazni led 17 raids into India (1000–1027 CE), primarily to plunder wealth. He destroyed the Somanatha temple in 1026. Al-Biruni, a Persian scholar, accompanied him and wrote an encyclopaedic survey of Indian culture. Bhaskaracharya, a great mathematician, wrote Lilavati, Bijaganita, and Siddhantashiromani.

In eastern India, the Senas ruled Bengal, and the Eastern Gangas built the Jagannath Temple at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konark.

In South India, the Cholas were masters of the seas. Rajaraja Chola I built the Brihadishvara Temple and conquered the Maldives. Rajendra Chola I led a naval expedition against the Shrivijaya Empire. The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas also flourished.

Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), establishing Ghurid power in northern India. His general Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.

Despite political upheavals, trade with China and Southeast Asia continued, and a composite culture began to emerge.

20. Quick Revision

21. Important Questions

Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark)

Short Answer Questions (2–3 marks)

Long Answer Questions (5 marks)

22. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

23. Fill in the Blanks

24. True or False

25. Match the Following

Answers: 1-(c), 2-(d), 3-(a), 4-(b), 5-(e)

26. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Final Revision