Class 7 Social Science Chapter 15: Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries

1. Introduction

After the decline of the Gupta Empire, India did not become a weak or backward country. Instead, it witnessed the rise of many powerful regional kingdoms that competed with one another, built magnificent temples, patronised art and learning, and expanded trade across Asia and Africa. This period, from roughly 600 CE to 1200 CE, is called the post-classical, late classical, or early medieval period.

Powerful dynasties such as the Pushyabhutis (Harshavardhana's dynasty), Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Cholas rose to prominence. They fought wars, formed alliances, and created some of India's greatest art, architecture, literature, and scientific thought. This was not a "dark age" — it was a land buzzing with new ideas, art, and culture, different in each region yet all part of one India.

2. What You Will Learn

• The major changes that characterised the period from the 6th to the 10th centuries
• The achievements of Harshavardhana and his dynasty, the Pushyabhutis
• What Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrim, observed about India
• The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj among the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas
• The contributions of the Palas, including the University of Vikramashila
• The military and cultural achievements of the Rashtrakutas, including the Kailashanatha temple
• The history of Kashmir as recorded by Kalhana in the Rajatarangini
• The Chalukyas, Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras of South India
• How administration, land grants, trade, and society functioned during this period
• The rise of the Bhakti movement and its impact on Indian society
• The magnificent art and architecture of this era, including the temples at Ellora and Mamallapuram
• The mathematical and astronomical contributions of Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, and others
• The impact of foreign invasions by the Hunas and Arabs

3. Overview and Timeline (600–1200 CE)

This chapter surveys India from roughly 600 CE to 1200 CE. After the Gupta Empire declined, no single power dominated the subcontinent. Multiple regional kingdoms rose, competed, and created some of India's greatest art, architecture, and thought.

4. Harshavardhana: The Great King of Kings

Harshavardhana ascended the throne in 606 CE at Kannauj (anciently Kanyakubja, present-day Uttar Pradesh). He belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty, whose earlier capital was Sthaneshvara (Thanesar, Haryana). He bore the title Maharajadhiraja — "Great King of Kings."

Kadambari: One of the World's First Novels

The 7th-century novel Kadambari by Bana tells the love story between a prince from Ujjayini and Kadambari, a celestial being, running across different births, dreams, and divine worlds — a story within a story. Bana died before completing it; his son finished it. It is a masterpiece of classical Indian literature.

5. Xuanzang: Chinese Pilgrim and Key Historical Source

Xuanzang (also spelled Hsuan Tsang or Hiuen Tsang) travelled in India between 630 and 644 CE. He brought back more than 600 Sanskrit manuscripts (carried by 20 horses!) and translated them into Chinese. His meticulous travelogue recording politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion is a major primary source for historians of this period. Harsha held a grand assembly at Kannauj in his honour.

Key Observations by Xuanzang

• Described Kannauj as beautiful and prosperous; Harsha as just and energetic with a vast army.
• Harsha's Prayaga assembly every 5 years — gave away wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.
• Praised Pulakeshin II: "beneficent actions felt over a great distance, subjects obey with perfect submission."
• At Kanchi: 100 Buddhist monasteries, 80 Hindu temples, many Jains; people "deeply attached to honesty, truth, highly esteem learning."
• Noted social discrimination — butchers, fishers, dancers, scavengers lived outside city walls.

6. The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

After Harsha's death in 647 CE, Kannauj became the centre of a long, indecisive Tripartite Struggle. Three powers warred repeatedly during the 8th–9th centuries with no lasting victor.

Why Was Kannauj So Attractive?

• Strategically located on the Ganga; controlling it gave symbolic authority over the Gangetic plains and north India.
• Located in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab — rich in agricultural production, population, and revenue.
• Commanded important river routes — easy to move armies, goods, and people.
• A central point in North Indian politics — whoever controlled Kannauj could influence surrounding kingdoms.
• A great cultural and commercial centre — wealthy, urban, and a meeting point of scholars, traders, and religious groups.

7. The Palas and Vikramashila University

After Harsha's death, Bengal fell into disorder. According to an inscription, the people chose Gopala in 750 CE to restore stability — he was the first king of the Pala dynasty. His successor Dharmapala expanded the empire and became a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

Vikramashila University

• Founded by Dharmapala in the late 8th century on the banks of the Ganga.
• Centre of learning for more than four centuries.
• Had six colleges, monasteries, temples, lecture halls, and a vast library.
• Nearly 3,000 scholars studied grammar, logic, Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, and rituals.
• Each college had a dvarapandita (scholar gatekeeper) — admission was highly selective.
• Strong ties with Tibet; shaped Tibetan (Vajrayana) Buddhism.
• Plundered and destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in the 12th century.

8. The Gurjara-Pratiharas

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were a powerful dynasty based in the Gujarat-Rajasthan region. They were one of the three parties in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.

Key Facts

• King Bhoja was one of their most famous rulers. He bore the title Adi Varaha (Varaha is an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a boar). He was a devotee of Vishnu and also bore the title Mihira (a name of the Sun). The Gurjara-Pratihara coin depicts Varaha.
• Nagabhata I — a Gwalior inscription records that he "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechchha king" (referring to Arab forces).
• The 9th-century Arab merchant Sulaiman wrote about a Gurjara-Pratihara ruler: "This king maintains numerous forces, and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs … there is no greater foe of the Muhammadan faith than he. … He has riches, and his camels and horses are numerous. … There is no country in India safer from robbers."

9. The Rashtrakutas

In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga became the first independent Rashtrakuta ruler when he overthrew the Chalukyas. Their capital was Manyakheta (modern Malkheda, Karnataka). Their empire spanned much of the subcontinent for nearly two centuries.

Al-Masudi on the Rashtrakutas

The 10th-century Arab historian Al-Masudi wrote: "His troops and elephants are innumerable … none among the rulers of Sindh and Hind who respects the Muslims as he does. In his kingdom, Islam is honoured and protected … mosques have been built." This demonstrates the Rashtrakutas' remarkable religious tolerance.

10. Kashmir and Kalhana's Rajatarangini

In the mid-8th century, a new power stirred in Kashmira. The key historical source for this period is Kalhana's Rajatarangini ("River of Kings") — an epic poem in Sanskrit (12th century) narrating the history of Kashmir's ruling dynasties.

Key Rulers and Events

• Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty — a firm ruler who defeated an Arab chief three times.
• Queen Didda (late 10th century) — consolidated power, founded towns, built and restored temples.

Kalhana's Method: A Model Historian

• Examined eleven earlier works by former scholars.
• Consulted inscriptions, temple consecrations, royal grants, and laudatory records.
• Stated: "That noble-minded poet is alone worthy of praise whose words, like that of a judge, remain free from love or hatred in relating the facts of the past."
• Purpose: highlight rulers' ethical values to draw moral lessons from history.

Adi Shankaracharya

• 8th-century philosopher, teacher of advaita vedanta.
• Taught: brahman = ultimate reality; world = maya (illusion).
• Established four mathas at Badrinath (North), Puri (East), Dwarka (West), Sringeri (South).
• He chose four different corners of India to unite the country spiritually, ensure equal access for all people, symbolise the unity of India, strengthen Hinduism against regional divisions, and promote pilgrimage and cultural connections.

11. The Chalukyas

In the mid-6th century CE, Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty. His grandson Pulakeshin II blocked Harsha's southward ambitions at the Narmada. Capital: Vatapi (Badami, Karnataka). Earlier capital Aryapura (Aihole) has 100+ Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples.

Early 7th Century: Two Great Imperial Powers

• Harshavardhana dominated north of the Vindhyas; Pulakeshin II dominated the south.
• The Tungabhadra River served as the unwritten boundary between the two powers.
• Narasimhavarman I (Pallava) later defeated Pulakeshin II and briefly captured Badami.

12. The Pallavas

Capital: Kanchi (Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu). The dynasty reached its peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I (also "Mamalla" = wrestler/warrior).

13. The Cholas

The Cholas were reborn under Vijayalaya in the 9th century. Capital: Tanjavur (Thanjavur). His son Aditya I overthrew the Pallavas and established Chola dominance in the Tamil region. The Cholas went on to become one of the greatest empires of South India.

Key Features of the Cholas

• Powerful naval force — controlled trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
• Great temple builders — the Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur is a masterpiece.
• Efficient local administration through village assemblies (sabhas and urs).
• Patrons of Tamil literature and culture.

14. The Pandyas and Cheras

The Pandyas

• Rose to power by the 6th century.
• Capital: Madurai.
• Controlled southern Tamil Nadu and briefly northern Sri Lanka.
• Maritime trade via Korkai to Southeast Asia.
• Built many temples and patronised poets.
• Swept aside by Cholas in the 10th century; re-emerged three centuries later.

The Cheras

• Along the Kerala coast, the Cheras (Chera Perumals) maintained independence.
• Copper-plate inscriptions record the presence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traders from West Asia — showing India as a hub of international trade.

15. Administration and Governance

During this period, administration was largely decentralised. Kings claimed high-sounding titles but often shared power with their samantas (feudal lords or warrior-chiefs) and with associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.

Titles Adopted by Kings

• Maharaja-adhiraja — Great King, Overlord of Kings
• Tribhuvana-chakravartin — Lord of the Three Worlds

Role of Samantas

• Samantas were big landlords or warrior-chiefs in different regions.
• They brought gifts for their kings, remained present at their courts, and provided military support.
• When samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a 'circle' or region).
• Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.

The Example of Dantidurga

In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (the golden womb) with the help of Brahmanas. This ritual was considered to lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not Kshatriya by birth.

Other Examples of Samantas Establishing Kingdoms

• Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms. They successfully established kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan, respectively.

Village Assemblies

• Local administration grew stronger through village councils such as sabhas.
• These assemblies managed local affairs, resolved disputes, and collected revenue.

16. Economy, Land Grants, and Trade

Sources of Revenue

• Resources came from producers — peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans.
• They were often persuaded or compelled to surrender a part of their production.
• Sometimes these were claimed as 'rent' due to a lord claiming his ownership of the land.
• Revenue was also collected from traders.
• Chola inscriptions refer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes. The most frequently mentioned tax is Vetti (forced labour).

Land Grants and Agriculture

• The land grant system (begun under the Guptas) expanded greatly; it created a new class of landholders.
• Pallavas built numerous tanks in Tamil Nadu — many still functional today.
• Agriculture flourished with improved irrigation and land grants to Brahmanas and temples.

Trade Networks

• From the 8th century: India's west coast traded with Iran, Iraq, and Africa's east coast.
• The east coast connected with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China.
• Cities flourished as political, economic, and religious hubs with temples as centres of commerce.

Merchant Guilds

• Merchant guilds (associations of traders, artisans, moneylenders) played a significant role.
• In south India, two major guilds operated: one in coastal and inland trade; the other became the largest inter-regional merchant association.
• Copper-plate inscriptions record Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traders from West Asia on the Chera coast.

17. Society and Social Life

The Jati System

• Traditional jatis multiplied — many new ones based on occupation or region.
• The varna-jati system was flexible rather than rigid.
• The term aspṛiśhya ('not to be touched') appeared in texts, pointing to discrimination against some communities — confirmed by Xuanzang's account.

How a Professional Group Becomes a Jati: The Kayastha Example

• The Kayasthas (scribes/clerks) were initially a professional group open to different varnas.
• In the 10th century they became a distinct jati.
• In Bengal, Brahmana surnames (Vasu, Ghosha, Datta, Dama) fused with non-Brahmana families who then married within the group — forming the Kayastha jati.

Queens Who Ruled

• Queen Didda of Kashmir (late 10th century) — consolidated power; founded towns; built and restored temples.
• Tribhuvana Mahadevi I of Bhauma-Karas (Odisha, 9th century) — title: Paramabhattarika Maharajadhiraja Tribhuvana Mahadevi ('supreme sovereign empress, great queen of the three worlds').

18. Religion and the Bhakti Movement

Rulers generally patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools regardless of personal inclination. Tantric schools emerged around the 6th century. Jainism remained popular in western India and Karnataka; the monolithic Bahubali at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka, 10th century) and Jain cave temples at Ellora and Badami are prominent examples.

The Bhakti Movement

From the 6th century onward, personal devotion to a deity spread across all layers of society. The initial spark came from South India: the 12 Alvars (devotees of Vishnu, including the female saint Andal) and the 63 Nayanars (devotees of Shiva, including three women).

Inscriptions in Two Languages

During this period, inscriptions began using both Sanskrit and regional languages simultaneously. In land grants, the ruler and dynastic history were praised in Sanskrit, while operative details of the grant were in the local language.

19. Art and Architecture

This period produced some of India's most magnificent temples and sculptures.

Major Architectural Achievements

• Kailashanatha temple at Ellora (Rashtrakuta king Krishna I) — India's largest rock-cut temple, carved out of a hillside. It is not a construction but a gigantic sculpture.
• Mamallapuram (Pallava) — rock-cut caves and monolithic temples, including the famous Shore Temple.
• Aihole (Chalukya) — 100+ Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples.
• Badami (Chalukya) — famous for Hindu and Jain cave temples.
• Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) — monolithic Bahubali statue (10th century).

The Durga Panel at Mamallapuram

The Durga panel shows the goddess with multiple weapons — a trident (trishul), a sword, a bow and arrow, a club/mace, and a spear — gifts from various gods to help her defeat the buffalo demon Mahishasura. Her vahana (vehicle) is the lion, representing courage, strength, and fearlessness. Durga's attendants look confident and organised; the demon's attendants look frightened and confused, symbolising the inevitable collapse of evil in the face of divine power.

20. Mathematics and Astronomy

India's Numerals to 'Arabic Numerals'

• In the 9th century, Sanskrit texts of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were translated into Arabic, notably in Baghdad.
• Arabs adopted India's decimal numeral system with zero and Indian numerals.
• Once transmitted to Europe by Arabs, these became known as 'Arabic numerals'; several modern dictionaries now use 'Hindu-Arabic numerals'.

India–Arabia Trade and Language Connection

• India and Arabia were well connected through trade long before Islam; ships sailed with monsoon winds.
• The word 'monsoon' comes from Arabic mawsim ('season').
• Sanskrit karpura → 'camphor'; tambula → tanbul; pippali → filfil (pepper).

21. Foreign Invasions: Hunas and Arabs

The Hunas' Challenge

• The Hunas were a branch of the nomadic Huns from Central Asia (4th century), known for horse-riding, archery, and lightning-fast attacks.
• In the early 6th century, two Huna leaders pushed deep into the Ganga plains until defeated by kings of the Aulikara dynasty (capital: Dashapura = modern Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh).
• By the 7th century, the Hunas had fully assimilated into Indian society: serving as soldiers, local administrators, even temple council members (goshthika).
• They adopted Sanskrit and Prakrit for inscriptions and used Gupta-style royal titles, coin designs, and religious symbols.

The Arabs Arrive on India's Shores

• In 637 CE, Arab naval raids on Thana (Thane), Bharuch, and Debal failed to secure lasting control.
• In 712 CE, Muhammad bin Qasim (nephew and son-in-law of the governor of Iraq) swept into Sindh; King Dahar was killed in battle.
• Primary sources: Chachnama (13th century Persian text); Al-Baladhuri (9th century Arab historian).
• Indian resistance: Within 2 years of Qasim's death, Indian chiefs rebelled and regained most territory.
• Gurjara-Pratiharas: Gwalior inscription records that Nagabhata I "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechchha king."
• Kashmir: Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated the Arab chief three times (Rajatarangini).
• Final Arab domain: After three centuries, only two petty states in Sindh and Punjab (geographer al-Istakhri).
• Policy change in Sindh: Hindus and Buddhists allowed to rebuild temples, continue worship; priests kept revenue share.
• Overall impact: Limited political and religious impact — no mass conversions unlike other Arab conquests.

22. Important Terms and Definitions

23. Important People of the Period

24. Chapter Summary

• After the Gupta Empire declined, no single power dominated India. Multiple regional kingdoms rose and competed.
• Harshavardhana ruled from Kannauj (606–647 CE), was a patron of art and learning, and was blocked from expanding south by Pulakeshin II.
• Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim, travelled in India (630–644 CE) and left a detailed account of its politics, society, and religion.
• The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj was fought among the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas (8th–9th centuries).
• The Palas, founded by Gopala, patronised Buddhism and founded Vikramashila University.
• The Rashtrakutas, founded by Dantidurga, built the Kailashanatha temple at Ellora and were known for religious tolerance.
• Kashmir was ruled by the Karkota dynasty; Kalhana's Rajatarangini records its history.
• The Chalukyas (Pulakeshin I, Pulakeshin II), Pallavas (Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I), and Cholas (Vijayalaya, Aditya I) dominated South India.
• Administration was decentralised; samantas held significant power and sometimes became independent.
• Land grants expanded, agriculture flourished, and trade networks connected India to Iran, Africa, Southeast Asia, and China.
• The Bhakti movement began in South India (6th century) and spread across India, emphasising personal devotion.
• Magnificent art and architecture flourished — Kailashanatha temple at Ellora, monolithic temples at Mamallapuram, and more.
• Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, Virahanka, and Mahavira made major contributions to mathematics and astronomy.
• The Hunas assimilated into Indian society; the Arabs conquered Sindh but had limited impact.

25. Quick Revision

26. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

27. Short Answer Questions

28. Long Answer Questions

29. Fill in the Blanks

30. True or False

31. Match the Following

Answers: 1-d, 2-c, 3-a, 4-b, 5-e, 6-f

32. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

33. Final Revision