🔎 The Big Questions
Chapter 6 begins with three important questions that guide our study of the beginnings of civilisation in the Indian Subcontinent.
What is a civilisation?
What was the earliest civilisation of the Indian Subcontinent?
What were its major achievements?
🏛️ What Is a Civilisation?
Human societies gradually changed as people began settling down, practising agriculture and developing technologies such as construction, metallurgy and transport.
A civilisation can be understood as an advanced stage of human society in which communities develop complex systems of organisation, production, trade, culture and settlement.
A civilisation is a developed and organised human society with cities or settlements, systems of administration, specialised crafts, trade, cultural expression and productive economic activities.
Seven Important Characteristics
Government & Administration
A complex society requires some form of organisation and administration to manage its many activities.
Urbanism
Civilisations may develop towns and cities with planned streets, buildings, water management and drainage systems.
Variety of Crafts
Specialised crafts involve working with materials such as stone, clay and metals to create tools, ornaments and other finished goods.
Internal & External Trade
Civilisations develop systems for exchanging goods within their regions and with distant communities.
Writing System
A civilisation may develop a system of writing or symbols for communication and record keeping.
Cultural Expression
Art, customs, beliefs, ornaments, objects and other forms of cultural expression reveal aspects of life.
Productive Agriculture
Agriculture needs to produce enough food to support both villages and growing urban populations.
🏙️ From Village to City
The development of agriculture encouraged people to establish more permanent settlements. As agricultural production increased, some communities were able to support people who specialised in crafts, trade, administration and other activities.
Over time, some settlements grew into towns and cities. This process is closely connected with what is often called the First Urbanisation of India.
🌾 From Agriculture to Urban Life
Agriculture provided food. Surplus production could support craftspeople, traders and other specialists. This helped settlements become larger and more complex.
The Harappan Civilisation represents one of the earliest major urban traditions of the Indian Subcontinent.
🏺 The Harappan Civilisation
The earliest major civilisation discussed in this chapter is commonly known as the Harappan Civilisation. It is also referred to as the Indus Civilisation or Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation.
The term Harappan comes from the site of Harappa, one of the important archaeological sites of the civilisation. The term Indus refers to the Indus River and the region associated with it. The expression Indus-Sarasvati is used in the chapter to recognise the wide geographical area associated with the civilisation, including regions connected with the Sarasvati/Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
| Name | Why It Is Used |
|---|---|
| Harappan Civilisation | Named after Harappa, one of the first major sites to be excavated. |
| Indus Civilisation | Associated with the Indus River and its wider region. |
| Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation | Highlights the geographical spread associated with the Indus and Sarasvati-related river systems. |
⏳ When Did It Flourish?
The mature phase of the Harappan or Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation is generally placed around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
Before 2600 BCE
Earlier farming communities and settlements developed technologies, agriculture and more complex forms of social organisation.
Around 2600–1900 BCE
Large planned urban settlements flourished across a wide area. This is the mature phase of the Harappan Civilisation.
After about 1900 BCE
Many large urban settlements declined, while Harappan cultural practices continued in different forms and people increasingly lived in rural settlements.
🗺️ The Geographical Spread
The Harappan Civilisation covered a very large geographical area. Its settlements extended across parts of present-day India and Pakistan.
Important archaeological sites show that Harappan communities lived in different environmental settings, from river valleys and plains to areas closer to the coast.
Harappa
Harappa was one of the key archaeological sites and gave the civilisation its commonly used name.
Mohenjo-daro
A major urban settlement famous for its planned streets, drainage, wells and the Great Bath.
Dholavira
Known for its sophisticated town planning, stone construction and extensive water reservoirs.
Lothal
An important settlement associated with craft production and maritime trade.
Kalibangan
An important Harappan settlement with evidence of town planning and agricultural activity.
Banawali
A significant settlement in the broader Harappan cultural region.
🏙️ Remarkable Town Planning
One of the most striking achievements of the Harappans was their town planning. Many settlements were laid out according to carefully organised plans.
Planned Streets
Streets were often laid out in an organised pattern, with some running in directions that created well-defined blocks.
Standardised Bricks
Baked bricks were widely used in Harappan construction and many bricks followed standard proportions.
Residential Areas
Houses and neighbourhoods were organised within larger city plans.
Drainage
Cities developed systems for removing wastewater from houses and streets.
🏛️ Upper and Lower Towns
At several major Harappan cities, different parts of the settlement had different functions. In many cases an elevated or fortified area existed alongside a larger residential area. Dholavira was distinctive because it had three major zones rather than the two-part arrangement seen at many other cities.
🏺 Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro was one of the largest and most important urban settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.
The Great Bath
The Great Bath is one of the best-known structures at Mohenjo-daro. It is a large brick-built tank surrounded by structures and rooms.
Its exact purpose is not known with certainty. Possible interpretations have included ritual, social or other community-related functions.
Archaeologists can study physical remains, but they cannot always know exactly how an ancient structure was used. Interpretations should therefore be distinguished from established evidence.
💧 Dholavira and Water Management
Dholavira, located in present-day Gujarat, is especially famous for its sophisticated water management system.
Reservoirs
Large reservoirs were constructed to collect and store water.
Channels
Water was directed through carefully planned structures and channels.
Rainwater
The system helped the inhabitants manage scarce water resources in a dry environment.
💡 What Does Dholavira Teach Us?
The reservoirs show the importance the inhabitants placed on planning, conservation and the careful management of water. Living in a challenging environment required long-term thinking and cooperation.
🚰 Water, Wells and Drainage
Water management was not limited to reservoirs. Harappan cities also contained wells, drains and other systems designed to provide and manage water.
Wells
Mohenjo-daro had a very large number of brick-built wells. Their continued maintenance indicates the importance of reliable access to water.
House Drains
Many houses had arrangements for wastewater to flow towards larger drainage channels.
Covered Drains
Some drains were carefully constructed and covered, helping keep streets cleaner and safer.
Maintenance
Evidence suggests that water systems were maintained and used over long periods.
🌾 What Did the Harappans Eat?
Agriculture was essential to Harappan urban life. Productive farming helped provide food for both villages and cities.
| Food / Crop | Importance |
|---|---|
| Wheat | One of the important cereal crops. |
| Barley | Another important cereal cultivated by farming communities. |
| Pulses | Provided an important source of food and nutrition. |
| Cotton | Used as an important fibre for textiles. |
| Fruits and other plants | Archaeological evidence reveals the use of a variety of plants and food resources. |
| Animal products | Animal bones and other remains provide clues about meat and other animal resources. |
Urban civilisation depended on productive agriculture. Farmers supplied food that supported people living in cities and allowed some people to specialise in crafts, trade and administration.
🔨 Crafts and Technology
Harappan communities were skilled in many crafts. Archaeologists have found evidence of pottery, metalworking, bead-making, jewellery, stone-working and other specialised activities.
Pottery
Pottery was used for storing, cooking and serving food and also carried decorative designs.
Bead-Making
Harappan craftspeople produced beads from materials such as carnelian and other stones.
Ornaments
Jewellery and ornaments were made from stone, shell, metal and other materials.
Metallurgy
Harappans worked with metals and produced tools, ornaments and other objects.
Shell Work
Shell was used to make bangles and other decorative objects.
Construction
The use of bricks and carefully planned structures shows advanced construction skills.
🚢 A Brisk Trade
The Harappans participated in both internal and long-distance trade. Goods moved between different settlements and communities.
Carnelian Beads
Carnelian beads were important craft products and were traded over considerable distances.
Shell Bangles
Shell ornaments, including bangles, were produced and exchanged.
Timber
Wood and timber were among the resources that could move through trade networks.
Maritime Trade
Coastal settlements such as Lothal provide evidence of connections with maritime trade.
Lothal
Lothal in Gujarat is an important Harappan settlement associated with craft production and maritime connections. A large basin-like structure has been interpreted as a dockyard, although archaeological interpretations must always be considered in relation to the evidence.
🔖 Harappan Seals
Thousands of small seals have been discovered at Harappan sites. Many were made from steatite, a soft stone that could be hardened by heating.
Animal Figures
Many seals contain animal figures such as bulls and other creatures.
Symbols
Harappan seals often contain groups of signs or symbols.
Trade Connections
Seals appear to have been connected with economic and trade activities.
Undeciphered Writing
The Harappan writing system has not yet been deciphered with certainty.
The fact that the Harappan script remains undeciphered means that archaeologists rely heavily on buildings, objects, environmental evidence and comparisons to reconstruct Harappan life.
👨👩👧👦 The Lives of the Ancients
Archaeological discoveries provide clues about everyday Harappan life. Pottery, toys, ornaments, tools, figurines and other objects help historians understand the activities and interests of the people.
Games
Games and gaming objects have been discovered, showing that entertainment was part of daily life.
Toys
Terracotta toys and figurines provide clues about children and recreational activities.
Ornaments
Bangles, beads and other ornaments reveal craftsmanship and cultural practices.
Dancing Girl
The famous bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro is one of the best-known Harappan artefacts.
Terracotta Figurines
Terracotta figurines provide clues about artistic expression and possible cultural practices.
Pottery Designs
Pottery sometimes carried decorative patterns and scenes that provide clues about Harappan life.
🤝 Harappan Society
The organisation of Harappan settlements reveals that large communities were able to coordinate construction, water management, crafts and trade.
The archaeological evidence does not provide a complete picture of Harappan political organisation. However, the uniformity of many construction practices and the scale of public works show that significant planning and cooperation were possible.
🧠 Archaeology Has Limits
Because the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered, many questions about government, religion, social structure and political institutions remain open to interpretation. Archaeologists therefore distinguish between what the physical evidence clearly shows and what may be inferred from it.
🕊️ Was Harappan Society Peaceful?
The chapter notes that there is no clear trace of large-scale warfare or invasion responsible for the decline of the cities.
Harappan settlements do contain fortifications and weapons or weapon-like objects have been discussed by archaeologists, but the available evidence does not establish that warfare caused the end of the urban civilisation.
Historical conclusions should be based on archaeological evidence. The absence of evidence for a particular event should not automatically be treated as proof that the event never happened.
🌍 The End or a New Beginning?
Around and after 1900 BCE, many large Harappan cities declined. However, this does not mean that the people or their culture simply disappeared.
🌦️ Climatic Change
The chapter identifies climatic change from around 2200 BCE onward, including reduced rainfall and a drier phase, as one important factor.
🏜️ Increasing Aridity
Less rainfall could have made agriculture more difficult and reduced the food supply available to urban populations.
🌊 Sarasvati River Changes
The chapter notes the drying of the Sarasvati River in its central basin, after which settlements such as Kalibangan and Banawali were abandoned.
🌾 Return Towards Rural Life
As cities declined, many people moved towards smaller and more rural settlements.
🔄 Decline Does Not Mean Disappearance
Although many cities disappeared, much of the Harappan culture and technology survived and was passed on to later phases of Indian civilisation.
⚡ Chapter 6 Quick Revision
- A civilisation is an advanced and organised stage of human society.
- Important characteristics include government and administration, urbanism, crafts, trade, writing, cultural expression and productive agriculture.
- The Harappan Civilisation is also called the Indus or Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation.
- The mature phase of the civilisation is generally placed around 2600–1900 BCE.
- Harappan settlements covered a very large area of the Indian Subcontinent.
- Harappa gave the civilisation one of its most commonly used names.
- Mohenjo-daro was a major planned urban settlement.
- The Great Bath is one of Mohenjo-daro's best-known structures.
- Dholavira was famous for sophisticated water management and reservoirs.
- Lothal was an important settlement associated with crafts and maritime trade.
- Harappan cities had planned streets, buildings, wells and drainage systems.
- Agriculture provided food for growing settlements and cities.
- Harappans practised specialised crafts including pottery, bead-making, metalworking and shell work.
- Harappans participated in internal and long-distance trade.
- Seals were commonly made from steatite and often contained animal figures and signs.
- The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered with certainty.
- Objects such as toys, ornaments and figurines provide clues about everyday life.
- Many urban settlements declined after about 1900 BCE.
- Climatic and environmental changes were important factors in the decline.
- Harappan culture and technologies continued after the decline of the large cities.
📝 Questions, Activities and Projects
These are the eight questions and activities given at the end of Chapter 6 in the NCERT textbook, followed by student-friendly answers and guidance.
1. Why does the civilisation studied in this chapter have several names? Discuss their significance.
2. Write a brief report of 150 to 200 words summing up some of the achievements of the Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation.
3. Imagine you have to travel from the city of Harappa to Kalibangan. What are your different options? Can you make a rough estimation of the amount of time each option might take?
4. Imagine a Harappan man or woman being transported to an average kitchen in today's India. What are the four or five biggest surprises awaiting them?
- Modern gas or electric cooking appliances.
- Refrigerators used to preserve food.
- Electric lights and other electrical appliances.
- Modern pressure cookers and metal utensils.
- Packaged and processed foods available in large varieties.
5. Looking at all the pictures in this chapter, make a list of the ornaments, gestures and objects that still feel familiar in our 21st century.
- Bangles and bracelets.
- Beads and necklaces.
- Decorative ornaments.
- Pottery and household vessels.
- Toys and games.
- Musical or recreational objects.
- Human gestures represented in figurines.
- Animal figures and decorative designs.
6. What mindset does the system of reservoirs at Dholavira reflect?
7. In Mohenjo-daro, about 700 wells built with bricks have been counted. They seem to have been regularly maintained and used for several centuries. Discuss the implications.
8. It is often said that the Harappans had a high civic sense. Discuss the significance of this statement. Do you agree with it? Compare with citizens in a large city of India today.
🎯 Important Exam Questions
1. What are the seven characteristics of a civilisation?
- Government and administration.
- Urbanism, including town planning, water management and drainage.
- A variety of specialised crafts.
- Internal and external trade.
- A writing system.
- Cultural expression through art and customs.
- Productive agriculture capable of supporting cities and villages.