Class 12 Political Science Chapter 7: Regional Aspirations

Introduction

The 1980s marked a period of rising regional aspirations in India, often expressed through demands for autonomy or separation from the Indian Union. These movements were characterized by:

• Armed assertions and government repression.
• Collapse of political and electoral processes.
• Negotiated settlements or accords to resolve conflicts within the constitutional framework.

This chapter examines regional conflicts in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Assam, Mizoram, and other areas, addressing:

• Factors contributing to regional tensions.
• The Indian state’s responses to these challenges.
• Difficulties in balancing democratic rights and national unity.
• Lessons for achieving unity with diversity in a democracy.

Indian Approach to Diversity

Core Principles

• Unity with Diversity: Indian nationalism balances unity and diversity, allowing regions and linguistic groups to retain their cultural distinctiveness.
• Democratic Accommodation: Democracy permits political expressions of regional aspirations, viewing them as legitimate rather than anti-national.
• Contrast with Europe: Unlike many European nations that saw cultural diversity as a threat, India embraces diversity as integral to its nationhood.

Democratic Politics

• Regional identities and aspirations are strengthened through democratic politics, allowing parties to address regional issues.
• Regional concerns receive attention in policymaking, though tensions arise when national unity overshadows regional needs or vice versa.
• Quote:
  “Indian nationalism sought to balance the principles of unity and diversity. The nation would not mean the negation of the region.”

Areas of Tension

Post-Independence Challenges

• Immediate Issues: Partition, displacement, integration of Princely States, and state reorganization based on linguistic lines.
• Skepticism: Observers predicted India’s disintegration due to its diversity and challenges.
• Early Conflicts:
  • Jammu and Kashmir: Conflict with Pakistan and internal aspirations for autonomy (Kashmiriyat).
  • North-East: Nagaland and Mizoram demanded separation from India.
  • South India: Dravidian movement briefly considered a separate Dravida nation.

Linguistic and Regional Agitations

• 1950s-1960s: Mass agitations for linguistic states led to the creation of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
• Language Disputes:
  • Tamil Nadu protested against Hindi as the official language.
  • North India demanded immediate adoption of Hindi.
• Punjab: Punjabi-speaking groups agitated for a separate state, leading to the creation of Punjab and Haryana in 1966.
• Later Statehood: Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand were created to address regional demands.

Persistent Challenges

• Complex issues in Kashmir, Nagaland, Punjab, Assam, and Mizoram persisted, requiring ongoing negotiation and accommodation.

Jammu and Kashmir

Overview

• Special Status: Granted under Article 370, but experienced violence, cross-border terrorism, and political instability.
• Regions:
  • Jammu: Hindu-majority, mixed with Muslims, Sikhs, and others.
  • Kashmir: Predominantly Kashmiri Muslims, with Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists.
  • Ladakh: Mountainous, equally Buddhist and Muslim.
• Impact: Large-scale displacement of Kashmiri Pandits and loss of lives due to militancy.

Roots of the Problem

• Pre-1947: Princely State under Maharaja Hari Singh, who sought independence.
• Pakistan’s Claim: Viewed Kashmir as part of Pakistan due to its Muslim majority.
• Kashmiriyat: Regional identity prioritizing Kashmiri culture over alignment with India or Pakistan.
• National Conference: Led by Sheikh Abdullah, a secular organization allied with Congress, opposed joining Pakistan and sought to remove the Maharaja.

Accession and Conflict

• 1947 Invasion: Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators, prompting Hari Singh to sign the Instrument of Accession with India.
• Indian Response: Military support drove back infiltrators, but Pakistan retained control over parts of the state (Pakistan-occupied Jammu and Kashmir, POJK).
• UN Resolution (1948): Proposed withdrawal of Pakistani forces, reduction of Indian forces, and a plebiscite, but no progress was made.
• Autonomy: Article 370 granted provisional autonomy; Sheikh Abdullah became Prime Minister in 1948.

External and Internal Disputes

• External: Pakistan’s claim led to ongoing conflict, with POJK under illegal occupation.
• Internal: Disputes over Kashmir’s status within India:
  • Anti-Article 370: Some outside J&K argued it hindered full integration and should be revoked.
  • Pro-Autonomy: Kashmiris demanded a plebiscite, restoration of eroded autonomy, and full democratic practices.

Politics Since 1948

• Sheikh Abdullah’s Tenure: Initiated land reforms but clashed with the Centre over Kashmir’s status, leading to his dismissal and detention in 1953.
• Congress Influence (1953-1974): Controlled state politics, merged with a truncated National Conference, and designated the state’s leader as Chief Minister (1965).
• 1974 Accord: Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Abdullah agreed, making him Chief Minister; National Conference won 1977 elections.
• Farooq Abdullah: Succeeded Sheikh Abdullah in 1982, but faced dismissal and central intervention, eroding trust in democratic processes.

Insurgency and After

• 1987 Elections: Alleged rigging in favor of the National Conference-Congress alliance fueled resentment.
• Insurgency (1989): Militant movement for a separate Kashmiri nation, supported by Pakistan, led to violence and President’s Rule.
• 1996 Elections: National Conference under Farooq Abdullah won, demanding regional autonomy.
• 2002 and Beyond:
  • PDP-Congress coalition (2002) led by Mufti Mohammed Sayeed, followed by Ghulam Nabi Azad.
  • 2008-2009: President’s Rule, followed by NC-INC coalition under Omar Abdullah.
  • 2014: PDP-BJP coalition under Mufti Mohammed Sayeed; Mahbooba Mufti became Chief Minister in 2016.
  • 2019: Article 370 abolished, J&K and Ladakh reorganized as Union Territories.

Dravidian Movement

Overview

• Slogan: “Vadakku Vaazhgiradhu; Therkku Thaeikiradhu” (The north thrives, the south decays).
• Origins: One of India’s first regional movements, focused on Tamil identity and opposition to northern dominance.
• Non-Violent: Used democratic means (debates, elections) rather than armed struggle.

Leadership and Evolution

• E.V. Ramasami ‘Periyar’ (1879-1973):
  • Founded Dravidar Kazhagam (DK), opposing Brahmin dominance and northern cultural, economic, and political control.
  • Advocated atheism, anti-caste struggle, and Dravidian identity.
• Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK):
  • Emerged from DK split, led by C. Annadurai.
  • 1953-54 Agitations: Demanded renaming Kallakudi railway station, Tamil cultural emphasis in curricula, and opposed Hindi imposition.
  • 1965 Anti-Hindi Agitation: Boosted DMK’s popularity, leading to its 1967 election victory.

Political Impact

• Post-1967: Dravidian parties (DMK, AIADMK) dominated Tamil Nadu politics.
• Split: AIADMK emerged post-Annadurai, alongside newer parties like MDMK, PMK, and DMDK.
• National Influence: Dravidian parties joined central coalitions since 1996, balancing regional pride with nationalism.
• Significance: Demonstrated compatibility of regionalism and nationalism through democratic engagement.

Punjab

Political Context

• Reorganization: Punjab became a Punjabi-speaking state in 1966, with Sikhs as the majority.
• Akali Dal: Formed in 1920, led the movement for ‘Punjabi Suba’ and governed in coalitions (1967, 1977).
• Challenges:
  • Central dismissal of Akali governments.
  • Limited Hindu support.
  • Internal Sikh divisions based on caste and class, with Congress gaining Dalit support.

Anandpur Sahib Resolution (1973)

• Demands: Regional autonomy, redefinition of Centre-state relations, and Sikh community dominance (bolbala).
• Controversy: Perceived as a separatist call by some, though primarily a plea for federalism.
• Limited Appeal: Failed to gain widespread Sikh support initially.

Cycle of Violence

• 1980s: Akali dismissal in 1980 and water-sharing disputes fueled militancy.
• Militancy: Extremists, led from the Golden Temple, turned it into an armed fortress.
• Operation Blue Star (1984): Army action flushed out militants but damaged the Golden Temple, alienating Sikhs.
• Indira Gandhi’s Assassination (1984): Killed by Sikh bodyguards, triggering anti-Sikh violence in Delhi and northern India.

Road to Peace

• Punjab Accord (1985): Rajiv Gandhi and Harchand Singh Longowal agreed to:
  • Transfer Chandigarh to Punjab.
  • Resolve border disputes with Haryana.
  • Establish a tribunal for Ravi-Beas water sharing.
  • Compensate militancy victims and withdraw the Armed Forces Special Powers Act.
• Aftermath:
  • Violence continued for a decade, with police excesses and human rights violations.
  • President’s Rule suspended normal politics; 1992 elections saw only 24% turnout.
  • Militancy eradicated by mid-1990s; Akali Dal-BJP alliance won in 1997, restoring secular politics.

The North-East

Overview

• States: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim.
• Geography: 4% of India’s population, twice the land share, connected by a 22-km corridor, with borders to China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.
• History: Tripura, Manipur, and Khasi Hills were Princely States; Nagaland (1963), Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya (1972), Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh (1987) were created.
• Challenges: Isolation, economic neglect, demographic changes due to migration, and weak connectivity.

Key Issues

• Demands for Autonomy: Non-Assamese communities opposed Assam’s linguistic imposition, leading to the creation of Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Secessionist Movements: Nagaland and Mizoram sought independence.
• Movements Against Outsiders: Locals opposed migrants seen as encroaching on resources and power.

Demands for Autonomy

• Pre-1972: Assam encompassed most of the North-East; tribal communities formed the Eastern India Tribal Union, later the All Party Hill Leaders Conference, demanding separation.
• Post-1972: Bodos, Karbis, and Dimasas sought separate states within Assam; granted autonomy via District Councils (Karbis, Dimasas) and Autonomous Council (Bodos).

Secessionist Movements

• Mizoram:
  • Origins: Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, formed after the 1959 famine, demanding independence.
  • 1966-1986: MNF waged a guerrilla war, supported by Pakistan; Indian forces used repressive measures, including air strikes.
  • 1986 Accord: Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga signed a peace agreement, granting Mizoram statehood and special powers; MNF abandoned secession, and Laldenga became Chief Minister.
  • Outcome: Mizoram became peaceful, with high literacy and development.
• Nagaland:
  • Origins: Naga National Council, led by Angami Zapu Phizo, declared independence in 1951.
  • Insurgency: Armed struggle persisted; Phizo rejected settlements and operated from Pakistan and the UK.
  • Partial Agreement: Some Nagas signed an accord, but others continued the struggle; no final resolution.

Movements Against Outsiders

• Assam Movement (1979-1985):
  • Context: Fear of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers reducing Assamese to a minority, coupled with economic grievances (poverty, unemployment despite resources).
  • All Assam Students’ Union (AASU): Led a non-party movement demanding deportation of post-1951 migrants.
  • Methods: Protests, blockades, and violence led to loss of lives and property.
  • 1985 Accord: Rajiv Gandhi’s government agreed to identify and deport post-Bangladesh War migrants.
  • Outcome: AASU formed Asom Gana Parishad (AGP), which won in 1985, but immigration issues persisted.

Sikkim’s Merger

Context

• Status: A protectorate under India, with the Chogyal managing internal affairs and India handling defense and foreign relations.
• Demographic Tension: Majority Nepali population vs. minority Lepcha-Bhutia elite under the Chogyal.

Movement for Integration

• Sikkim Congress: Led by Kazi Lhendup Dorji Khangsarpa, won 1974 elections demanding integration with India.
• 1975: Assembly passed a resolution for full integration, ratified by a referendum; Sikkim became India’s 22nd state.
• Controversy: Chogyal and supporters alleged Indian foul play, but the merger had popular support.

Goa’s Liberation

Context

• Portuguese Rule: Goa, Diu, and Daman remained under Portuguese control post-1947, with suppression of civil rights and forced conversions.
• Indian Efforts: Diplomatic persuasion failed; a strong freedom movement within Goa, supported by Maharashtra’s socialist satyagrahis, emerged.

Liberation and Integration

• 1961: Indian Army liberated Goa after two days of action; it became a Union Territory.
• Post-Liberation Debate:
  • Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party (MGP): Advocated merger with Maharashtra due to Marathi-speaking population.
  • United Goan Party (UGP): Supported retaining Goa’s distinct Konkani identity.
• 1967 Opinion Poll: Majority voted to remain separate from Maharashtra.
• 1987: Goa became a state.

Accommodation and National Integration

Lessons from Regional Aspirations

• Regional Aspirations as Normal: Part of democratic politics, seen globally (e.g., Scotland, Basque in Spain, Tamils in Sri Lanka).
• Democratic Negotiation: Suppression fuels conflict; negotiated settlements (e.g., Mizoram, Punjab, Assam) reduce tensions.
• Power Sharing: Regions need representation at state and national levels to prevent alienation.
• Regional Imbalance: Economic disparities fuel demands; addressing backwardness is critical.
• Flexible Federalism: India’s Constitution, with provisions like Article 370 (until 2019) and the Sixth Schedule, accommodates diversity.

Significance

• India’s flexible constitutional framework prevents separatism, integrating regionalism into democratic politics.
• Quote:
  “Politics in India has succeeded in accepting regionalism as part and parcel of democratic politics.”

Key Figures

• Sheikh Abdullah (1905-1982): National Conference leader, advocated Kashmiriyat, served as J&K Prime Minister/Chief Minister.
• E.V. Ramasami ‘Periyar’ (1879-1973): Founded Dravidar Kazhagam, led Dravidian movement against northern dominance.
• Master Tara Singh (1885-1967): Akali leader, advocated for Punjabi Suba.
• Sant Harchand Singh Longowal (1932-1985): Akali Dal president, signed Punjab Accord, assassinated.
• Laldenga (1937-1990): MNF leader, led Mizoram’s secessionist movement, later Chief Minister after 1986 Accord.
• Angami Zapu Phizo (1904-1990): Naga National Council leader, sought Nagaland’s independence.
• Kazi Lhendup Dorji Khangsarpa (1904-2007): Led Sikkim’s integration with India.
• Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991): PM (1984-1989), signed accords for Punjab, Mizoram, and Assam.

Visual and Historical Artifacts

• Times of India (1947): “Kashmir Accedes to India, Plebiscite Soon.”
• Times of India (1953): “Sheikh Abdullah Arrested, Charges of Corruption.”
• Times of India (1984): “Army Controls Temple, 250 Terrorists Killed.”
• Times of India (1984): “Indira Gandhi Shot at, Condition Critical.”
• Times of India (1961): “Goa Back with the Motherland.”
• Roja (1992): Film depicting Kashmir’s militancy and Indo-Pakistan tensions.

Questions and Activities

Matching

• (a) Socio-religious identity leading to statehood – iii. Punjab.
• (b) Linguistic identity and tensions with Centre – iv. Tamil Nadu.
• (c) Regional imbalance leading to demand for Statehood – ii. Jharkhand/Chhattisgarh.
• (d) Secessionist demands on account of tribal identity – i. Nagaland/Mizoram.

North-East Map Activity

• Movements Against Outsiders: Assam (AASU-led movement).
• Movement for Greater Autonomy: Assam (Bodos, Karbis, Dimasas), Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Movement for Separate National Existence: Nagaland (NNC), Mizoram (MNF).

Punjab Accord Provisions and Tensions

• Provisions:
  • Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab.
  • Border dispute resolution with Haryana.
  • Ravi-Beas water-sharing tribunal.
  • Compensation for militancy victims.
  • Withdrawal of Armed Forces Special Powers Act.
• Potential Tensions:
  • Chandigarh transfer and water-sharing disputes could strain Punjab-Haryana relations.
  • Haryana’s claim to Chandigarh and water resources may lead to legal and political conflicts.

Anandpur Sahib Resolution Controversy

• Reasons:
  • Ambiguity in demanding Sikh “bolbala” raised fears of separatism.
  • Central government viewed it as a challenge to national unity.
  • Limited mass appeal alienated moderate Sikhs, fueling extremist narratives.

Jammu and Kashmir’s Internal Divisions

• Divisions:
  • Jammu: Hindu-majority, seeks integration with India.
  • Kashmir: Muslim-majority, demands greater autonomy or plebiscite.
  • Ladakh: Buddhist-Muslim mix, seeks development and Union Territory status (achieved in 2019).
• Aspirations: Jammu favors revoking Article 370; Kashmir seeks autonomy; Ladakh prioritizes development.

Positions on Kashmir’s Regional Autonomy

• Positions:
  • Revoke Article 370: Full integration with India (achieved in 2019).
  • Restore Autonomy: Reinstate Article 370’s original provisions.
  • Plebiscite: Decide Kashmir’s status via referendum.
• Justifiable Position: Restore autonomy.
  • Reason: Balances Kashmir’s historical special status with national integration, reducing alienation while maintaining constitutional framework.

Assam Movement

• Cultural Pride: Emphasized Assamese identity against perceived Bengali dominance.
• Economic Backwardness: Highlighted poverty, unemployment, and resource exploitation without local benefits.

Non-Separatist Regional Movements

• Examples:
  • Dravidian Movement: Focused on Tamil identity and anti-Hindi agitation, achieving state power without separatism.
  • Goa’s Opinion Poll: Retained separate identity without seeking independence.

Unity with Diversity

• Agreement: Yes.
  • Reasons: India accommodates diverse regional demands (e.g., linguistic states, special provisions) while maintaining national unity through democratic negotiations and federal flexibility.