Prehistory refers to the period of human existence before written records were maintained. It covers about 99% of human history, from the emergence of early hominids to the development of writing systems.
Key Characteristics:
• No written records - studied through material remains
• Covers Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and Metal Ages (Chalcolithic, Iron Age)
• Shows evolution of human technology, culture, and social organization
Sources of Prehistoric Studies
Source Type
Description
Examples
Archaeological
Material remains like tools, pottery, artifacts
Stone tools from Bhimbetka, pottery from Mehrgarh
Fossil
Preserved remains of plants, animals and humans
Narmada Man fossil, animal bones from Kurnool Caves
Geological
Rock formations, soil layers, climate evidence
Alluvial deposits in Belan Valley, ash mounds in South India
Methods of Dating
UPSC Note: Dating methods are crucial for establishing chronology in prehistory. Questions often appear on these techniques.
Method
Time Range
Material Used
Principle
Carbon-14 Dating
Up to 50,000 years
Organic material (bones, wood, charcoal)
Decay rate of radioactive carbon isotope
Thermoluminescence
Up to 500,000 years
Pottery, burnt stones
Light emitted when heated (measures radiation exposure)
Dendrochronology
Up to 10,000 years
Wood samples
Tree ring patterns (varies with climate conditions)
Stratigraphy
Relative dating
Soil layers
Deeper layers are older than upper layers
2. Chronological Division of Prehistoric Age
Chronological divisions of prehistoric period (Illustrative representation)
Stone Age
The longest period of human prehistory, characterized by the use of stone tools. Divided into three phases:
Age
Time Period
Key Features
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
2.6 million - 10,000 BCE
Hunter-gatherers, crude stone tools, no permanent settlements
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
10,000 - 6,000 BCE
Microliths, beginning of animal domestication, semi-nomadic
Neolithic (New Stone Age)
6,000 - 1,000 BCE
Agriculture, polished stone tools, permanent settlements
Metal Age
Marked by the discovery and use of metals, leading to significant technological advancements:
Age
Time Period
Key Features
Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age)
3,000 - 1,000 BCE
Use of copper along with stone tools, painted pottery
Iron Age
1,500 BCE onwards
Iron tools and weapons, second urbanization, mahajanapadas
3. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
Period and Phases
2.6m - 300k BCE
hwerthuuiLower Paleolithic
• Earliest stone tools (choppers, handaxes)
• Homo erectus in India (Narmada Man)
• Sites: Soan Valley, Attirampakkam
300k - 30k BCE
asdfhhhiMiddle Paleolithic
• Flake tools (scrapers, points)
• Evidence of controlled use of fire
• Sites: Didwana, Nevasa
40k - 10k BCE
asdfhhhUpper Paleolithic
• Blade tools and bone artifacts
• Cave paintings appear (Bhimbetka)
• Sites: Patne, Kurnool Caves
Geographical Distribution in India
North India: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Belan Valley (UP)
Central India: Bhimbetka, Adamgarh
South India: Attirampakkam, Hunsgi, Kurnool
East India: Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
Tools: Types and Material
Phase
Tool Types
Material
Technology
Lower
Hand axes, cleavers, choppers
Quartzite, basalt
Pebble tools, core tools
Middle
Scrapers, borers, points
Chert, jasper
Flake tools (Levallois technique)
Upper
Blades, burins, bone tools
Fine-grained stone, bone
Pressure flaking, composite tools
Habitat, Food, and Lifestyle
Paleolithic humans were hunter-gatherers who:
Lived in natural shelters (caves, rock shelters)
Hunted wild animals (bison, deer, elephants)
Gathered fruits, nuts, roots, eggs
Were nomadic, following animal herds and seasonal plants
Discovered fire in later phases (Middle Paleolithic)
Art: Bhimbetka Cave Paintings
Bhimbetka rock paintings showing hunting scene (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
Located in Madhya Pradesh, discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957
Over 700 rock shelters with paintings spanning Paleolithic to Medieval
Early paintings (Upper Paleolithic) show animals and hunting scenes
Used natural colors (red and white from hematite, plant extracts)
Important Paleolithic Sites
Site
Location
Significance
Soan Valley
Punjab (Pakistan)
Type site for Soanian pebble tool industry
Bhimbetka
Madhya Pradesh
Continuous human occupation with rock paintings
Attirampakkam
Tamil Nadu
Oldest Lower Paleolithic site in India (1.5 million years)
Belan Valley
Uttar Pradesh
Shows transition from Paleolithic to Mesolithic
Bori
Maharashtra
Early evidence of human use of fire (1.4 mya)
UPSC Note: The Paleolithic age is characterized by absence of agriculture, pottery, and permanent settlements. Questions often test knowledge of tool types and important sites.
4. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
Transitional Phase – Key Features
The Mesolithic period (10,000-6,000 BCE) marked the transition from the nomadic Paleolithic to the settled Neolithic lifestyle:
Climate Change: End of Ice Age led to warmer, wetter conditions
Technology: Invention of microliths (small, precise stone tools)
Subsistence: Intensified hunting-gathering, beginning of animal domestication (dog first)
Social: Evidence of burial practices and early art
Introduction of Microliths
Microliths: Small stone tools (1-5 cm) made from blades, used as composite tools (set in wood/bone)
First evidence of animal domestication in Indian subcontinent:
Dog was first domesticated (Bagor, Rajasthan)
Later sheep, goat, cattle
Changed from hunting to herding gradually
Semi-nomadic Lifestyle
Mesolithic people were:
Less nomadic than Paleolithic but not fully settled
Seasonal movement between camps
Exploited diverse ecological zones (rivers, forests, grasslands)
Beginning of Art and Burial Practices
Art: Continuation of rock art (Bhimbetka), more human figures in paintings
Burials: Dead buried with grave goods (ornaments, tools) suggesting belief in afterlife
Evidence of ritual practices at sites like Bagor and Langhnaj
Important Mesolithic Sites
Site
Location
Significance
Bagor
Rajasthan
Largest Mesolithic site, evidence of dog domestication
Langhnaj
Gujarat
Human burials with grave goods
Sarai Nahar Rai
Uttar Pradesh
Evidence of semi-permanent huts
Mahadaha
Uttar Pradesh
Burial site with bone ornaments
Adamgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Rock shelters with microliths
5. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
Neolithic Revolution
UPSC Note: The Neolithic Revolution (agricultural revolution) was the most significant transformation in human history, leading to settled life and civilization.
Key developments in the Neolithic period (6,000-1,000 BCE):
Agriculture: Cultivation of plants (wheat, barley, rice)
Animal Husbandry: Domestication of cattle, sheep, goat
Sedentism: Permanent villages with houses
Technology: Polished stone tools, pottery, weaving
Emergence of social hierarchy (evident in house sizes, grave goods)
Different burial practices:
Extended burials (full body stretched)
Pot burials for children (Inamgaon)
Cults and rituals:
Mother goddess figurines
Bull cult (evident from figurines)
UPSC Note: Chalcolithic cultures were rural and did not develop urban features. Their decline around 1000 BCE may be linked to ecological changes and arrival of iron-using people.
7. Iron Age (1500 BCE onwards)
Introduction of Iron
Iron technology arrived in India around 1500 BCE
Initially used for tools and weapons (axes, ploughshares, swords)
Superior to copper/bronze for tools and weapons
Led to forest clearance and agricultural expansion
Second Urbanization
Following the decline of Harappan cities (first urbanization), new urban centers emerged in Ganga valley:
Associated with Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture
Emergence of mahajanapadas (large territorial states) by 600 BCE
Development of writing (Brahmi script)
Growth of trade and crafts
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
Time: 1200-600 BCE
Region: Ganga-Yamuna doab
Features:
Fine grey pottery with black paintings
Associated with later Vedic period
Iron tools and weapons
Sites: Hastinapur, Ahichchhatra, Kausambi
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture
Time: 600-200 BCE
Region: Ganga plain
Features:
Luxury pottery with glossy surface
Associated with mahajanapadas and Mauryan empire
Urban centers with fortifications
Sites: Rajgir, Vaishali, Pataliputra
Early Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
The Iron Age saw the emergence of territorial states:
Janapadas: Early tribal territories (by 1000 BCE)
Mahajanapadas: 16 major kingdoms/republics (by 600 BCE)
Some important mahajanapadas:
Magadha (most powerful, later Mauryan empire)
Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti (other major kingdoms)
Vajji (famous republic with Vaishali as capital)
8. Prehistoric Art and Culture
Rock Paintings
Prehistoric art provides insights into early human cognition, culture and environment:
Site
Location
Features
Bhimbetka
Madhya Pradesh
Paintings from Paleolithic to Medieval, hunting scenes, dances
Shows gradual development of human culture over millennia
Many prehistoric practices continued into historic periods
Foundation of Indian civilization laid in prehistoric times
Basis of Later Civilizations
Harappan Civilization: Built upon Neolithic/Chalcolithic foundations
Vedic Culture: Iron Age PGW culture associated with later Vedic period
Many mahajanapadas emerged in areas of earlier Chalcolithic settlements
Early Human Adaptation to Environment
Shows how humans adapted to changing climates (Ice Age to Holocene)
Development of technologies suited to local environments
Transition from food collection to food production
Foundation of Settled Life and Social Structure
Origins of village life in Neolithic period
Beginnings of social hierarchy in Chalcolithic period
Development of religious ideas visible in art and burials
UPSC Relevance: Understanding prehistoric cultures helps in understanding the long-term development of Indian society and its connections to later historical periods. Many contemporary tribal cultures preserve prehistoric lifestyles, making this knowledge relevant for anthropology and tribal welfare questions.
