Introduction

Nomadic pastoralists move with their herds to earn a living, yet their stories are often absent from history textbooks. In India and Africa, pastoralism is vital, sustaining communities like the Gujjar Bakarwals and Maasai. This chapter explores how colonialism and modern pressures transformed their lives, highlighting their resilience and ecological importance.

1. Pastoral Nomads and Their Movements

Pastoralists in India adapted to seasonal changes, moving to access pastures while sustaining their herds through trade and cultivation.

1.1 In the Mountains

• Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir migrated in the 19th century, moving between winter pastures in the Siwalik hills and summer pastures in Kashmir, crossing Pir Panjal passes in a kafila.
• Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh followed a similar cycle, wintering in Siwalik hills and summering in Lahul and Spiti, harvesting crops en route.
• In Garhwal and Kumaon, Gujjar herders moved from winter bhabar forests to summer bugyals, joined by Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris.
• Seasonal movements prevented pasture overuse, allowing vegetation recovery.

1.2 On the Plateaus, Plains, and Deserts

• Dhangars of Maharashtra (467,000 in early 20th century) stayed in the central plateau during monsoons, grazing flocks and growing bajra. Post-harvest, they moved to Konkan, where their herds manured fields in exchange for rice.
• In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, Gollas herded cattle, while Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats, moving to coastal tracts in the dry season.
• Banjaras in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Maharashtra traded cattle and goods over long distances.
• Raikas of Rajasthan combined cultivation and pastoralism, with Maru Raikas herding camels, moving during dry seasons to find pastures.

2. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

Colonial policies drastically altered pastoralists’ lives by restricting grazing lands, regulating movements, and imposing taxes.

• Waste Land Rules converted grazing lands into cultivated fields to increase revenue, reducing pastures.
• Forest Acts declared forests as Reserved or Protected, restricting pastoralist access and requiring permits.
• The Criminal Tribes Act (1871) labeled nomadic groups as criminals, confining them to settlements under surveillance.
• Grazing Tax, introduced in the mid-19th century, was collected per animal, with passes tracking payments, burdening pastoralists.

2.1 How Did These Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?

• Shrinking pastures led to overgrazing, deteriorating forage quality and causing animal deaths during famines.
• Restricted movements disrupted nomadic cycles, preventing pasture recovery.
• Declining animal stock reduced pastoralists’ income and food security.

2.2 How Did Pastoralists Cope with These Changes?

• Some reduced herd sizes or found new pastures (e.g., Raikas moved to Haryana post-1947).
• Richer pastoralists settled as farmers or traders; poorer ones became laborers or borrowed from moneylenders.
• Pastoralists adapted by combining activities and advocating for rights, proving their ecological viability in dry and hilly regions.

3. Pastoralism in Africa

Over 22 million Africans, including Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana, rely on pastoralism in semi-arid regions, combining herding with trade and agriculture.

3.1 Where Have the Grazing Lands Gone?

• The Maasai in Kenya (300,000) and Tanzania (150,000) lost 60% of their pre-colonial lands after 1885 due to colonial boundaries and white settlements.
• Cultivation expanded, and game reserves like Maasai Mara, Samburu, and Serengeti (14,760 km²) barred pastoralists, reducing grazing areas.
• Confined to arid zones, Maasai faced pasture deterioration and fodder shortages.

3.2 The Borders Are Closed

• Colonial reserves restricted Maasai mobility, requiring permits and punishing violations.
• They were barred from white markets and trade, though some labor was needed for colonial projects.
• Similar restrictions affected Kaokoland herders in Namibia, who were confined and cut off from trade routes.

3.3 When Pastures Dry

• Droughts caused massive cattle losses, with over half of Maasai cattle dying in 1933–1934 due to confinement in arid reserves.
• Nomadism, traditionally a survival strategy, was curtailed, intensifying crises.

3.4 Not All Were Equally Affected

• Maasai society had elders (rulers) and warriors (protectors and raiders). British-appointed chiefs gained wealth, buying land and trading, surviving droughts.
• Poor pastoralists, reliant solely on herds, faced destitution, working as charcoal burners or laborers during crises.
• Social changes disrupted elder-warrior dynamics and created a wealth divide.

4. Conclusion

Pastoralists worldwide adapted to modern challenges like restricted mobility and shrinking pastures. They changed migration paths, reduced herds, and diversified income. Environmentalists recognize pastoralism’s suitability for dry and hilly regions, emphasizing its modern relevance.

5. Activities and Questions

5.1 Activities

• As a 60-year-old Raika herder in 1950, describe lifestyle changes post-Independence to your granddaughter.
• Write an article for a magazine on Maasai life and customs in pre-colonial Africa.
• Research pastoral communities marked in Figs. 11 and 13.

5.2 Questions

• Explain why nomadic tribes move and the environmental benefits of their movement.
• Discuss the colonial laws (Waste Land Rules, Forest Acts, Criminal Tribes Act, Grazing Tax) and their impact on pastoralists.
• Explain why the Maasai lost their grazing lands.
• Identify two similar changes faced by Indian pastoralists and Maasai herders in the modern world.