India’s Long Road to Independence

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1. Introduction

The chapter presents India’s freedom struggle as a long and complex process involving different ideas, methods and groups. People with different languages, religions, regions and social backgrounds participated in the struggle, while freedom fighters also disagreed about the best ways to achieve independence.

The chapter discusses constitutional politics, social reform, Swadeshi and boycott, revolutionary activities, Satyagraha, mass movements, the Indian National Army, negotiations with the British, communal tensions and the difficult circumstances surrounding Independence and Partition.

2. A Royal Proclamation — 1858

After the Great Uprising of 1857, the British Crown took direct control of India in 1858. The East India Company's role in governing India ended.

The chapter notes that around 560 Indian princes ruled princely states under British paramountcy.

3. Reform Movements and New Ideas

Social and religious reform movements contributed to intellectual change and helped shape ideas about society, education and the nation.

4. The Rise of the Indian National Congress

The first session of the Indian National Congress (INC) was held in Bombay in 1885. It became an important platform for political discussion and demands relating to Indian participation in government.

Moderates

Early Congress leaders often used constitutional methods such as petitions, speeches, resolutions and appeals. They sought greater Indian participation in administration and political reforms.

Nationalists / Assertive Nationalists

A younger and more assertive group increasingly argued for stronger political action and greater self-government. Important figures associated with this tendency included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal.

5. Growing Discontent and Revolutionary Activities

Alongside constitutional politics, some young nationalists turned towards revolutionary activities. The chapter discusses organisations and individuals who believed that stronger or armed resistance was necessary.

Martyr: a person who is killed or tortured for his or her beliefs.

6. Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi Movement

In 1905, the British government partitioned Bengal. The decision generated strong opposition and became a major turning point in the nationalist movement.

Swadeshi and Boycott

• Swadeshi encouraged the use of goods made in India.
• Boycott involved refusing to buy or use selected foreign goods, especially imported cloth.
• National education and indigenous industries were also encouraged.

In 1906, the Congress endorsed the call for Swaraj, Swadeshi and Boycott. In 1911, the partition of Bengal was annulled and the capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

Vande Mataram and Bharat Mata

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's Vande Mataram became an important patriotic song. The chapter also discusses representations of Bharat Mata, including Abanindranath Tagore's painting, as examples of cultural expressions of nationalism.

7. The All-India Muslim League

In December 1906, prominent Muslim leaders founded the All-India Muslim League at Dhaka. The chapter traces the League's development within the changing political environment of colonial India.

In 1916, the Lucknow Pact promoted cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim League.

8. Mahatma Gandhi and Satyagraha

M.K. Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. Before returning, he had developed and used Satyagraha in struggles against racial discrimination in South Africa.

Meaning of Satyagraha

Satyagraha is associated with holding firmly to truth and resisting injustice through non-violent means.

Early Indian Satyagrahas

9. Rowlatt Act and Non-Cooperation Movement

In 1919, the Rowlatt Act expanded the colonial government's powers to deal with political activities and allowed detention without ordinary trial protections. Gandhi opposed it and called for Satyagraha.

Jallianwala Bagh

On 13 April 1919, British troops under Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer fired on a large gathering at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. The massacre became a major event in the history of the freedom struggle.

Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920–22

Gandhi promoted non-violent resistance through the boycott of foreign goods, schools and courts. The movement attracted mass participation across India. It was withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, when a police station was attacked and policemen were killed.

10. Civil Disobedience and the Salt March

Dandi March

Gandhi began the Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in 1930. The salt law was chosen because the colonial government held a monopoly over salt production and imposed a tax on it. Breaking the salt law became a powerful symbol of resistance.

The movement spread through salt marches, boycott of foreign cloth, refusal to pay certain taxes and participation by large numbers of people, including women.

11. Quit India Movement — 1942

During the Second World War, the British government sent the Cripps Mission in 1942. It proposed post-war dominion status, but Indian leaders did not accept the proposal.

In August 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an end to British rule. The colonial government responded with mass arrests and repression.

Women and other sections of society participated in protests. The chapter's opening image shows a procession of women in Bombay during the 1942 movement.

12. Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

Subhas Chandra Bose followed a different path from Gandhi's non-violent mass politics. In 1941 he escaped from India to seek international support against British rule.

In 1943, the Indian National Army (INA) was reorganised under Bose and a provisional government of Azad Hind was proclaimed. INA campaigns in northeast India were defeated in 1944.

13. The Final Phase of British Rule

The chapter explains that British authority was weakened by the cumulative effect of political mobilisation, wartime pressures, changing international circumstances, the INA episode and developments within the armed forces and Indian society.

14. Independence and Partition

India became independent in August 1947. Independence was accompanied by the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan.

Partition was accompanied by widespread communal violence and the displacement of millions of people. The chapter therefore presents Independence as both a moment of political freedom and a period of immense human suffering.

Two sides of 1947

15. Major Differences in Approaches

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✍️ NCERT-Style Practice

1. How did people with different languages, religions and regional backgrounds participate in the freedom struggle?
2. What changed after the British Crown took direct control of India in 1858?
3. How did social and religious reform movements contribute to new ideas in India?
4. What was the role of the Indian National Congress?
5. Explain the difference between the Moderate and assertive nationalist approaches.
6. What were Swadeshi and Boycott?
7. Why was the partition of Bengal important?
8. What was Satyagraha?
9. Why was the Rowlatt Act opposed?
10. Why did Gandhi withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement?
11. Why did Gandhi choose salt as a symbol during the Civil Disobedience Movement?
12. What was the Quit India Movement?
13. How did Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA differ in approach from Gandhi?
14. What developments weakened British authority after the Second World War?
15. Why should Independence and Partition be studied together?

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