Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

1. Universal Adult Franchise

Franchise means a right granted by the Constitution or government. Suffrage is another term used for franchise.

The Constitution makers decided that universal adult franchise would be a feature of Indian democracy from the very beginning. It means that every adult citizen gets one vote and all votes have equal value.

Change in voting age

India changed the minimum voting age from 21 to 18 in 1988.

Where is universal franchise used?

The chapter states that elections to the Lok Sabha, legislative assemblies of states and union territories, and local elections in villages and cities are based on universal franchise under Article 326.

2. Why is Universal Franchise Important?

Universal franchise gives citizens a direct way to participate in determining who represents them. The chapter's mindmap highlights several connected ideas:

India's decision at Independence

Before Independence, only around 13% of Indians were allowed to vote. The Constitution makers nevertheless adopted universal adult franchise at the outset.

In 1947, India's literacy rate was about 14%, and about 8% among women. The chapter uses this context to invite students to think about why voting rights were not made dependent on literacy.

3. Bridging Barriers and Enabling Participation

India is geographically large and socially diverse. The Election Commission of India (ECI) has introduced measures intended to make voting accessible to eligible citizens.

Accessibility measures highlighted in the chapter

• Electoral officials travel to remote locations.
• Polling arrangements can be made even for very small groups of voters, including a single woman voter.
• Postal voting is available for specified categories.
• In the 2024 elections, the chapter notes home voting for elderly people and persons with disabilities under specified conditions.
• Braille-enabled voter cards and accessibility support such as wheelchairs and ramps are highlighted.
• App-based requests for assistance can help eligible voters access facilities.

The chapter notes that about 34% of eligible voters did not vote in the 2024 elections and asks students to explore possible reasons and ways to encourage participation.

4. Case Study — Election for Class Representative

The chapter uses a school election to explain how democratic elections work.

Election Officer

Teacher Ms. Usha acted as Election Officer. She explained the rules, organised the secret ballot, arranged voting booths, provided a Braille ballot for Neha and supervised counting.

Secret ballot

A secret ballot keeps a voter's choice private. In the case study, students marked an “X” beside their chosen candidate without revealing their choice.

Result

Out of 33 votes, one ballot was invalid because it was unmarked. Ahmed received 8 votes, Gurmat 12 and Ravi 10. Gurmat, having the most votes, became Class Representative.

NOTA

NOTA — None Of The Above is an option available to voters in India. It allows a voter to reject all the candidates listed. The chapter explains that a NOTA vote does not change the result but communicates dissatisfaction with the available choices.

5. Role of the Election Commission of India

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting free and fair elections. It was established in 1950.

Elections conducted by ECI

• Lok Sabha
• Rajya Sabha
• State Legislative Assemblies
• President of India
• Vice President of India

The first general elections in independent India were held in 1951–1952.

ECI structure highlighted in the chapter

Major functions

State Election Commissions manage elections to gram panchayats and urban local bodies. The chapter distinguishes these from the ECI's role in national and state-level elections.

6. Managing Elections in India

Managing an Indian election is a very large administrative task. For the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, the chapter gives the following scale:

Large numbers of people are deployed to conduct elections, including teachers who may be assigned election duty.

Reserved Lok Sabha constituencies

The chapter notes that 84 Lok Sabha constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 47 for Scheduled Tribes.

Basic voting process

7. EVM and VVPAT

Electronic Voting Machine (EVM)

An EVM is used for recording votes electronically. In the voting process described by the chapter, the voter presses a button corresponding to the chosen candidate and hears a beep.

VVPAT

VVPAT means Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail. It produces a physical paper record that allows the voter to verify that the electronic vote was cast correctly. The paper trail also provides a backup for verification and recounting in cases of disputes or electronic-system failures.

The chapter notes that India's EVM and VVPAT systems have also been used or studied in other countries, including Namibia and Bhutan, with support from the ECI.

8. Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

The Model Code of Conduct contains dos and don'ts for leaders, political parties and candidates intended to support free and fair elections.

Examples highlighted by NCERT

• The party in government must follow rules preventing misuse of government resources for electoral purposes.
• New schemes and projects that may influence voters should not be announced during the relevant period.
• Candidates are expected to exercise restraint and help maintain peaceful elections.
• Offering gifts in return for votes is punishable.

History of the MCC

The chapter states that the MCC was adopted in Kerala in 1960, voluntarily approved by representatives of major political parties at the time. The ECI circulated it during the 1962 general elections, and from 1991 became more proactive in ensuring its observance.

T. N. Seshan

T. N. Seshan became Chief Election Commissioner in 1990. The chapter highlights reforms associated with his tenure, including precise campaign rules, voter IDs aimed at eliminating proxy voting, and stricter vigilance over candidate spending.

9. Lok Sabha and State Assembly Elections

India follows a parliamentary system. Citizens participate in elections at national, state and local levels.

First-Past-the-Post

India uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) electoral system for Lok Sabha and State Assembly direct elections. The candidate receiving the most votes in a constituency wins. Therefore, a candidate can win without receiving 50% of the votes.

Government formation

If a party or coalition wins a majority of Lok Sabha seats, it forms the national government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. At the state level, the majority party or coalition forms the government and its leader becomes Chief Minister.

10. Election to the Rajya Sabha

Rajya Sabha members are also Members of Parliament, but they are chosen through indirect elections.

Each state has a different number of Rajya Sabha seats based on population. More populous states have more seats than less populous states.

11. Election of the President of India

The President is not directly elected by the common people. Instead, an Electoral College elects the President.

Who is in the Electoral College?

• Elected Members of Parliament from the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
• Elected Members of Legislative Assemblies from India's states.
• Elected MLAs of Delhi and Puducherry, as specified in the constitutional system described by the chapter.

The election uses the single transferable vote system. The chapter notes that more populous states have a greater say through the vote-value system.

Who does not participate?

• 12 nominated Rajya Sabha members.
• Nominated members of State Legislative Assemblies.
• Members of Legislative Councils in bicameral legislatures.
• Nominated members of the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry.

12. Election of the Vice President

The Vice President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of the elected and nominated members of both Houses of Parliament.

The election uses the single transferable vote system.

13. Challenges and the Road Ahead

The chapter describes India's electoral system as the world's largest democratic exercise while identifying challenges that require attention.

14. Important Timeline

15. Quick Revision — One Page

1. Franchise means a right granted by the Constitution or government; suffrage is a synonym.
2. Universal adult franchise gives every adult citizen one vote of equal value.
3. In India, the voting age is 18 years and above.
4. The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 in 1988.
5. Universal franchise is based on equality and is not restricted by caste, religion, gender, education or income.
6. Voters must be registered in their constituency.
7. The ECI is an independent constitutional body established in 1950.
8. ECI conducts elections to Parliament, State Assemblies, and the offices of President and Vice President.
9. State Election Commissions manage local-body elections.
10. The 2024 Lok Sabha election involved about 968 million voters, 543 constituencies and over one million polling stations.
11. EVM records votes electronically; VVPAT provides a physical paper record for verification.
12. Secret ballot protects the privacy of a voter's choice.
13. NOTA means None Of The Above.
14. The Model Code of Conduct contains election-related dos and don'ts.
15. India uses First-Past-the-Post for Lok Sabha and State Assembly direct elections.
16. The candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins under FPTP.
17. Lok Sabha members are directly elected by voters from constituencies.
18. Rajya Sabha members are chosen through indirect elections by elected MLAs, with 12 members nominated by the President.
19. Rajya Sabha is a permanent House; members have six-year terms and one-third retire every two years.
20. The President is elected indirectly by an Electoral College of elected MPs and MLAs as specified by the Constitution.
21. The Vice President is elected by elected and nominated members of both Houses of Parliament.
22. Money influence, candidates with criminal records and voter apathy are identified as challenges.
23. Voter awareness, education and participation are important parts of strengthening democratic processes.

16. NCERT-Style Practice

17. Interactive Quiz — 30 Questions

Choose one answer for each question, then click Check Score.

Key Terms