The Rise of the Marathas

1. Who were the Marathas?

The Marathas were a group native to the Deccan plateau, especially present-day Maharashtra, associated with the Marathi language and its long literary tradition.

Bhakti and the cultural foundation

Between the 7th and 17th centuries, many saints and seekers followed the path of bhakti (devotion to the divine or a particular deity). In Maharashtra, saints such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas became influential. Devotional songs and poetry in languages of the masses helped spread their messages.

According to the chapter, this cultural foundation helped later Maratha political organisation. Important texts and ideas were made accessible through Marathi.

2. Foundation of Maratha Power & Chhatrapati Shivaji

Early life

Chhatrapati Shivaji was born in 1630 in the Bhonsle clan to Shahji and Jijabai. Shahji served the Deccan sultanates and was often away from his family. Shivaji grew up in his jāgīr at Pune under Jijabai and trusted officials.

At the age of 16, Shivaji began military campaigns. He first consolidated his hold over the Pune region by capturing neglected or unoccupied forts and strengthening their defences.

Swarājya

Swarājya refers in the chapter to Shivaji's vision of a sovereign kingdom. It developed beyond military conquest and included political, economic and cultural dimensions.

Jāgīr — meaning

A jāgīr was land given by a ruler, usually to a noble or soldier, as a reward for service. The holder could collect taxes from the land and use the income for their needs or to support the ruler when required.

3. Military Strategy and Expansion

Maratha Navy

As Shivaji's kingdom expanded to the west coast, he recognised the importance of controlling coastal resources and created a navy. The NCERT chapter describes this as a significant development because the Bijapur Sultanate did not maintain a full-time naval force and Mughal naval use was limited.

Guerrilla warfare

Shivaji used guerrilla warfare: small groups used speed, surprise and detailed knowledge of the terrain to challenge larger armies.

Afzal Khan and Pratapgad

The Bijapur Sultanate sent the experienced general Afzal Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji met him near Pratapgad amid thick forests; the Marathas subsequently used their position in the mountains and guerrilla attacks to defeat Khan's army. The textbook notes Shivaji used a small weapon called the wāgh nakh in the close encounter.

Shaista Khan raid

Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan invaded Shivaji's territories with a large army. Shivaji later carried out a night raid on his camp with a small group of soldiers, after which Shaista Khan left Maharashtra.

Surat and the Purandar treaty

Shivaji sacked the wealthy Mughal port of Surat in retaliation for the attacks. The chapter states that he avoided religious places and spared the house of the charitable Mohandas Parekh. Aurangzeb then sent Rajput general Jai Singh. Shivaji was defeated at Purandar and entered a treaty, surrendering part of his kingdom while Sambhaji entered Mughal service.

Agra escape

Shivaji visited the Mughal court at Agra, was placed under house arrest, and escaped with Sambhaji by using baskets that had been used to distribute gifts. He was not captured by Aurangzeb afterwards.

Coronation and southern conquest

In 1674, Shivaji was coronated at Raigad with Vedic rites. He adopted the title Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati and began the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka. His dakṣiṇa-digvijaya extended into parts of present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, giving the Marathas strategic depth against Mughal pressure.

Key Timeline

4. The Marathas after Chhatrapati Shivaji

Shivaji's sons were Sambhaji and Rajaram. After Shivaji's death, Sambhaji became Chhatrapati. Aurangzeb invaded the Deccan, conquered Bijapur and Golconda, captured Sambhaji and later captured Raigad.

Rajaram became Chhatrapati and moved to Gingee in present-day Tamil Nadu. The Mughal-Maratha conflict therefore spread southward. The Marathas defended their forts and continued fighting. After Aurangzeb's death, Tarabai led the Marathas in major incursions into Mughal territories.

From centralised kingdom to a more decentralised structure

During rapid expansion, the political structure changed. The centralised state of Shivaji's period developed into a more decentralised structure in which regional chiefs held greater power. The Peshwa, a Persian term meaning prime minister, became especially influential.

Panipat and the Anglo-Maratha Wars

The Marathas expanded northwards and briefly controlled areas including Lahore, Attock and Peshawar. They suffered defeat at Panipat in 1761, but recovered under Madhavrao I. Mahadji Shinde recaptured Delhi in 1771.

The three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. The chapter attributes the end of Maratha power to increased internal disunity and the superior organisational and technological abilities of the British.

5. Maratha Administration

Civilian administration

• Shivaji established a relatively centralised administration.
• He abolished hereditary government posts and land assignments that were common under earlier sultanate and Mughal systems.
• Officials were paid salaries from the state treasury.
• Officials could be transferred periodically to prevent excessive independent power.
• Pensions were provided to widows of soldiers who died in battle, and their sons could be offered military posts.
• Shivaji minted gold and copper coins in his own name; Devanagari was used on the coins.

Aṣhṭa Pradhāna Maṇḍala — Council of Eight Ministers

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

Chauth was a tax of 25% levied by the Marathas on provinces not directly under their control. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% to chauth. In return, the Marathas offered protection and generally did not interfere in the internal administration of those provinces. Some provinces later became part of the Maratha Empire.

6. Military Administration

Bārgīrs vs Shiledārs

In the 18th century, the Marathas recognised the effectiveness of European-style disciplined troops and artillery. They attempted to recruit such troops; Mahadji Shinde maintained a large European-style army.

Weapons and forts

Swords and lances were preferred weapons, but guns were also used. Rockets were used from Shivaji's time, and metal-tube rockets were being used by 1770.

Forts were central to Maratha power. They controlled routes, protected armies, and supported guerrilla warfare. Shivaji built and controlled many forts.

7. Maritime Supremacy

Shivaji created a navy to secure the west coast. In the 18th century, Kanhoji Angre led the Marathas to victories in several naval battles by using geography and tactics, even though Maratha ships were not as technologically advanced as European ships.

European sources labelled Kanhoji Angre a “pirate”; in the textbook's account, this label occurred in the context of his challenge to European control of maritime trade.

8. Judicial System and Trade Networks

Judicial system

• The Marathas had an organised judicial system.
• The panchāyat was a local gathering of officials and prominent people that delivered justice; it is not the same as the modern constitutional/local-government Panchayat.
• An appeal could be made to a Maratha chief if a verdict was considered unsatisfactory.
• Kotwāl or police were deployed in prominent towns such as Pune and Indore to maintain law and order.
• The chapter highlights moderation in the use of capital punishment.

Trade networks

Shivaji encouraged trade and participated in maritime foreign trade. Maratha ships travelled to ports including Mocha in Yemen, Muscat in Oman and Malacca in Malaysia, carrying cargo such as gold and textiles.

Roads were constructed and maintained. Ferries supported river transport in places such as Odisha, and bridges were built across rivers and small streams.

9. Cultural Revival

The Marathas made contributions to cultural development. Shivaji's seal carried a Sanskrit inscription associated with his vision of Swarājya and the welfare of the people.

• Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha promoted Marathi by providing Sanskrit equivalents for commonly used Persian diplomatic terms.
• Shivaji respected other religions while maintaining his own religious identity.
• The saffron flag became a common Maratha symbol.
• He rebuilt desecrated temples and supported Sanskrit and Marathi literature, religious institutions and traditional arts.
• The Moḍī script, a cursive form of Devanagari, was used for Maratha correspondence.

10. The Mighty Maratha Women

11. In Focus: Thanjavur Marathas

Ekoji, Shivaji's half-brother, conquered the Thanjavur region in present-day Tamil Nadu in the late 17th century, beginning Maratha rule there.

The Thanjavur Marathas helped create a multilingual and syncretic cultural environment in which Tamil, Telugu and Marathi influences interacted. They patronised arts, music, literature and drama.

Serfoji II

• Well-versed in several Indian and European languages.
• Wrote the Marathi play Devendra Kuravanji.
• Patronised musicians.
• Associated in the chapter with the development of modern Carnatic music and early stages of Bharatanatyam.
• Established Dhanwantari Mahal, a centre of medicine offering free treatment using Indian and Western medicine.
• Started a printing press, described by the chapter as the first such example in India by a native ruler.
• Had the history of the Bhonsle family inscribed on the Brihadishwara temple walls.

12. The Maratha Legacy

The chapter explains that Maratha rule challenged Mughal dominance and created the largest Indian empire before the British took over the Subcontinent, controlling much of central and northern India.

Before we move on — key points

• Shivaji founded the Maratha kingdom in the 17th century.
• Decades of resistance to Mughal power contributed to later pan-Indian expansion.
• Forts were a core element of Maratha state power.
• The Maratha navy challenged European naval dominance for a period.
• Maratha cultural activity contributed to cultural revival and innovation in different regions.

13. Quick Comparison Table

14. Quick Revision — One Page

1. Marathas were native to the Deccan, especially present-day Maharashtra.
2. Marathi had a rich literary tradition; bhakti saints helped build a cultural foundation.
3. Shivaji was born in 1630 and began military campaigns at 16.
4. His vision of Swarājya grew into a political, economic and cultural project.
5. Forts and guerrilla warfare were central to early Maratha military strategy.
6. The Maratha navy protected the west coast and challenged European maritime practices.
7. Shivaji was coronated at Raigad in 1674.
8. His southern campaign was called dakṣiṇa-digvijaya.
9. After Shivaji, Sambhaji and Rajaram continued resistance; Tarabai played an important role.
10. The Maratha political structure became more decentralised and the Peshwas gained influence.
11. The Marathas recovered after Panipat (1761) and recaptured Delhi in 1771.
12. The three Anglo-Maratha Wars ended Maratha power in 1818.
13. Shivaji's administration included the aṣhṭa pradhāna maṇḍala.
14. Chauth was 25%; sardeshmukhi was an additional 10%.
15. Maratha forces included infantry, cavalry and navy.
16. Kanhoji Angre was an important naval leader.
17. Maratha judicial administration included local panchāyats and kotwāls in major towns.
18. Maratha cultural contributions included Marathi literature, Sanskrit learning, arts and institutions.
19. Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar are highlighted as important Maratha women.
20. Thanjavur Marathas contributed to a multilingual cultural environment and the arts.

15. NCERT-Style Practice

16. Interactive Quiz — 30 Questions

Choose one answer for each question, then click Check Score.

Key Terms