Reshaping India's Political Map

1. Chapter Overview

This chapter traces how India's political map changed repeatedly from roughly the 11th to the 17th centuries and beyond. New dynasties rose, older kingdoms resisted, empires expanded and contracted, and regional powers maintained or regained independence. At the same time, agriculture, trade, crafts, temples, cities and cultural traditions continued to shape people's lives.

2. The Period at a Glance

The chapter begins with a new era in India's history from the early 11th century, when invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush contributed to major changes in political boundaries. Many invaders came from Central Asia and were Turkic or Afghan. The chapter examines political change alongside society, economy and culture.

3. Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a political system centred on Delhi and ruled successively by five Turkic-Afghan dynasties. It controlled parts of northern India, while several neighbouring kingdoms resisted its expansion.

The Five Dynasties

Political instability

• The Sultanate period combined territorial expansion with political instability.
• Military campaigns raided villages and cities and extracted wealth.
• Succession was often violent. The textbook notes that almost two out of three sultans seized power by eliminating their predecessor.
• The average reign of Delhi sultans is presented as about nine years.

Impact on society and economy

• Military campaigns and plunder affected agricultural production and trade networks.
• Some sacred and educational centres were attacked or destroyed.
• The chapter discusses attacks on images in Buddhist, Jain and Hindu temples, including the role of iconoclasm in some cases.
• Some sultans imposed jizya, a tax on non-Muslim subjects; the textbook describes its economic and social burden.
• Enslavement and slave trade were also part of the period described.

Timur's invasion

At the end of the 14th century, Timur invaded north-western India and attacked Delhi. Large numbers were killed or enslaved, the city was devastated, and Timur withdrew with substantial plunder. The political aftermath contributed to the emergence of the Lodis.

4. Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Ambition and Failed Experiments

Muhammad bin Tughlaq is presented as an ambitious ruler who attempted major administrative and economic changes, some of which failed and contributed to hardship.

5. Regional Powers and Resistance

The Delhi Sultanate never controlled the entire subcontinent continuously. Regional kingdoms and Sultanates emerged and resisted or competed with Delhi.

Fort geography

Medieval forts were often located in hills, forests, steep slopes or other defensible places. Kumbhalgarh Fort in the Aravalli hills is an example. Its natural surroundings strengthened its defensive value.

6. The Vijayanagara Empire

Foundation

• In the 14th century, brothers Harihara and Bukka Raya established an independent kingdom in the south.
• It developed into the powerful Vijayanagara Empire.
• Its capital was Vijayanagara (Hampi), in present-day Karnataka.
• The popular story of a hare turning on hunting dogs is associated with the choice of Hampi; the brothers are said to have recounted the incident to their guru Vidyaranya.

Bahmani rivalry

To the north of Vijayanagara was the Bahmani Sultanate. It later fragmented into five Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar and Bidar.

Krishnadevaraya

• Krishnadevaraya was one of the most prominent rulers of Vijayanagara.
• His reign was marked by military success, economic activity and cultural patronage.
• He composed the Telugu work Amuktamalyada.
• His court patronised scholars and poets in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada.
• He supported temples, irrigation and other public works.

Vijayanagara as a trading centre

• Foreign travellers visited Vijayanagara for trade.
• Portuguese travellers came especially to trade in horses.
• Accounts such as those of Domingo Paes describe busy streets, markets, waterworks, gardens and abundant goods.

Battle of Talikota, 1565

• The Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition against Vijayanagara.
• Vijayanagara forces led by Ramaraya were defeated.
• The city was sacked and much of it was destroyed.
• The empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas, former military governors.
• The empire came to an end in the mid-17th century.

7. The Mughals

Babur and the First Battle of Panipat

• Babur was a Turkic-Mongol ruler, military strategist and descendant of Timur.
• He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
• The battle made heavy use of gunpowder, field artillery and matchlock guns.
• The victory ended the Delhi Sultanate and established the Mughal Empire.

Humayun and Sher Shah Suri

• After Babur's death in 1530, Humayun struggled to hold the empire.
• Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan leader, established the Sur Empire over large parts of north India.
• Sher Shah introduced several lasting administrative reforms.
• Humayun later reconquered the territories.

Himu and the Second Battle of Panipat

Himu (Hemu), a skilled military commander and chief minister under one of the Suri rulers, captured Delhi briefly and ruled as Hemchandra Vikramaditya. He was defeated in the Second Battle of Panipat and Akbar soon reclaimed Delhi.

Akbar

Jahangir and Shah Jahan

• Jahangir shared his father's interest in art and architecture and attempted expansion in the Deccan.
• Shah Jahan fought rebellions and is especially remembered for architecture, including the Taj Mahal.
• The period also saw the Humayun's Tomb, Red Forts, miniature painting, calligraphy and music flourish.

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb became emperor in 1658 after a succession struggle.
• He ruled for almost 49 years and expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial extent.
• His long Deccan campaigns placed heavy demands on the treasury and administration.
• After his death in 1707, Mughal power declined rapidly.
• He reimposed jizya on non-Muslims and a pilgrimage tax on Hindus, both of which Akbar had abolished.
• The textbook also notes that some scholars emphasise political motives in his policies and point to grants and assurances of protection given to some temples, while his own farmans indicate personal religious motives as well.

8. Resistance to Mughal Power

Peasant and Tribal Resistance

• Some peasant communities rebelled against harsh exploitation.
• The chapter gives the example of the Jats in present-day western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan.
• Tribal groups such as the Bhils, Gonds, Santhals and Kochs resisted attempts to annex their territories or impose taxes.
• Groups living in forested, hilly or remote areas were sometimes able to maintain greater independence.

9. Rani Durgavati and the Rajputs

Rani Durgavati

• Rani Durgavati ruled the Garha kingdom, one of the Gond kingdoms in central India.
• The chapter describes her as a capable ruler who made her kingdom prosperous.
• She maintained an army of about 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants.
• In 1564, Akbar's general attacked her kingdom.
• Although outnumbered and less well equipped, she led her troops in resistance.
• Wounded on the battlefield, she took her own life to avoid capture.

Rise of the Rajputs

• Rajput kingdoms were especially prominent in north-western India.
• After the Khilji conquest, Rajput kingdoms were rebuilt; Mewar and Marwar became major centres.
• Rana Kumbha successfully resisted invasions and built Kumbhalgarh Fort.
• Rana Sanga unified several Rajput clans and fought sultans before being defeated by Babur at Khanwa.
• Maharana Pratap refused to accept Mughal suzerainty.
• The Battle of Haldighati took place in 1576. The Mughal army gained the upper hand, while Maharana Pratap escaped and continued resistance through guerrilla warfare.
• The Bhils supported Maharana Pratap as archers and provided knowledge of the terrain.
• Some Rajput states later formed alliances with the Mughals; Mewar remained particularly resistant for a long period.

10. The Ahoms

• The Ahom ethnic group migrated from present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra Valley in the 13th century.
• They established the Ahom Kingdom in Assam.
• They resisted expansion by both the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals.

The Paik System

The paik system required able-bodied men to provide labour or military service to the state in exchange for land rights.

• It helped the state construct public infrastructure.
• It helped maintain a large military force without a conventional permanent army.
• It connected military and economic organisation.

Battle of Saraighat, 1671

• The Ahoms used their knowledge of forests, hills and rivers and employed guerrilla tactics.
• At Saraighat on the Brahmaputra near present-day Guwahati, Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan and about 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force of about 30,000.
• The Ahoms ultimately preserved their independence.

11. The Rise of the Sikhs

Guru Nanak

• In 15th-century Punjab, Guru Nanak spread messages of equality, compassion and the oneness of God, expressed through Ik Onkār.
• His followers became known as Sikhs.

Later Sikh Gurus

• Guru Arjan compiled the Guru Granth Sahib; later hymns including those of Guru Tegh Bahadur were added.
• Guru Hargobind introduced martial training and formed a Sikh army after the execution of Guru Arjan.
• The Guru Granth Sahib emphasises values including truthfulness, compassion, humility and self-control.

Guru Tegh Bahadur

• In 1675, a group of Kashmiri Pandits sought his protection from religious persecution.
• The chapter states that he refused to convert despite torture and was publicly beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, on Aurangzeb's orders.

Guru Gobind Singh and the Khalsa

• Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last Sikh Guru, established the Khalsa in 1699.
• The Khalsa was a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality and defence of the faith.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• As Mughal power declined, Sikh confederacies emerged in Punjab.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified them around the beginning of the 19th century.
• He established a strong, centralised Sikh Empire.
• The empire covered much of north-western India, including parts of Kashmir, and resisted later Mughal remnants and British expansion until the mid-19th century.

12. Administering India

12.1 Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

• The Sultan was the political and military head.
• A council of ministers assisted the Sultan in different departments.
• The iqta system assigned territories to nobles called iqtadars.
• Iqtadars collected taxes; after expenses, revenue was expected to go to the Sultan's treasury.
• The system helped create a network of local administrators loyal to the central authority.
• Posts were not hereditary.
• Tax burdens fell heavily on peasants, according to contemporary accounts cited by the chapter.

12.2 Mughal Administrative Framework

Todar Mal's Revenue System

• Todar Mal served as Akbar's finance minister.
• He conducted detailed surveys of crop yields and prices.
• He determined crop prices using collected information.
• Systematic land surveys strengthened revenue collection and the state apparatus.

13. People's Lives, Economy and Trade

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy.
• Rulers depended heavily on land revenue to maintain administration and armies.
• Irrigation expansion increased productivity and allowed multiple crops.
• Food crops included rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane and spices.
• Non-food crops included cotton, silk, wool, dyes, timber and jute.
• Famines occurred in several regions and periods; relief depended partly on individual rulers and circumstances.

Crafts and Industries

• Craft workers produced textiles, weapons, utensils, ornaments and jewellery.
• Ship-building developed significantly and supported river and overseas trade.

Trade and Ports

India exported many goods and imported products such as silk, horses, metals and luxury goods. Merchants from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia settled in Indian ports.

Hundi System

A hundi was a written instruction to make payment to an individual. It could cross political boundaries and allowed merchants to transfer funds without carrying large amounts of physical currency, reducing vulnerability to plunder.

Temples as Economic Centres

• Temples could function as centres of worship, learning, social interaction and performing arts.
• They could also support markets and community infrastructure.
• Land and wealth donated to temples were managed by temple authorities.
• Resources supported irrigation systems, tanks and pilgrim accommodation.
• Some temples provided credit and supported internal and maritime trade.

Society and Culture

• Different communities generally lived alongside one another and depended economically on each other, although the period also saw conflict and persecution.
• Political instability and warfare could cause forced displacement.
• Arts, architecture, music, literature, painting and calligraphy flourished under the patronage of rulers and communities.
• Indian traditions interacted with influences from outside the subcontinent, producing new cultural expressions and a shared heritage.

14. Comparing the Major Political Powers

15. Important Vocabulary

16. Big Patterns to Remember

17. NCERT “Before We Move On” Summary

• Foreign invasions and the rise and fall of dynasties repeatedly reshaped India's political boundaries.
• The period included instances of religious intolerance and persecution, while some rulers were more broad-minded than others.
• Agriculture and trade expanded and connected India with wider networks.
• Common people often experienced difficult economic conditions despite the wealth generated by the economy.
• Indian society showed resilience by rebuilding towns, cities, temples and economic systems.
• Art, literature, spirituality, architecture, music and painting flourished.
• Cultural interaction produced new expressions and forms of shared heritage.

18. Quick Revision Sheet

1. Chapter broadly covers the 11th–17th centuries, while also following developments beyond that period for regional powers such as the Sikhs.
2. Delhi Sultanate: Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.
3. Delhi Sultanate faced resistance from Eastern Gangas, Hoysalas, Mewar and regional Sultanates.
4. Muhammad bin Tughlaq's capital transfer and token currency experiments failed.
5. Vijayanagara was founded by Harihara and Bukka; Hampi was its major centre.
6. Krishnadevaraya was a major Vijayanagara ruler and patron of literature and public works.
7. Vijayanagara was defeated at Talikota in 1565.
8. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 and established Mughal rule.
9. Akbar expanded and consolidated the empire using military as well as political strategies.
10. Akbar promoted greater tolerance and supported translation and cultural exchange.
11. Aurangzeb expanded the empire to its greatest extent but long wars strained the state.
12. Rajputs, Jats, tribal communities, Ahoms and Sikhs resisted Mughal authority in different contexts.
13. Rani Durgavati resisted Mughal expansion in 1564.
14. Maharana Pratap continued resistance after Haldighati in 1576.
15. Ahoms defeated the Mughals at Saraighat in 1671.
16. Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa in 1699.
17. Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified Sikh confederacies into a strong Sikh Empire.
18. Iqta = Delhi Sultanate revenue/administrative assignment; mansabdari = Mughal ranking and military system.
19. Agriculture, crafts, trade, temples and ports supported economic life.
20. The period was marked by both hardship and resilience.

19. NCERT Questions & Activities — Practice Prompts

1. Compare the political strategies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. What similarities and differences existed?
2. Why did Vijayanagara and Ahom resist conquest for longer? Consider geography, military organisation and society.
3. Imagine you are a scholar in Akbar's or Krishnadevaraya's court. Write a letter describing politics, trade, culture and society.
4. What factors could explain changes in Akbar's policies over time?
5. Imagine Vijayanagara had won the Battle of Talikota. What possible political and cultural changes might have followed?
6. Choose one value associated with early Sikhism, such as equality, seva or justice, and discuss its relevance today.
7. Imagine you are a trader in Surat, Calicut or Hooghly. Describe the goods, people and ships you encounter.

20. Interactive 30-Question Quiz

Choose one answer for each question and click Check Score.