New Beginnings: Cities and States – Class 7 SST Chapter 4 Notes

Introduction

Around the 6th century BCE (about 2,600 years ago), north India saw big changes. Forests were cleared for fields, iron tools spread, trade grew, towns appeared, and many small settlements joined to form larger states. This was the start of early cities and states in the Indian subcontinent, which is why the chapter is called New Beginnings.

We know about this period from texts, from coins, and from the remains found by archaeologists at old city sites.

What You Will Learn

• Why farming, iron and trade changed life in the 6th century BCE
• What janapadas and Mahajanapadas were
• How monarchies differed from gana-sanghas
• Why Magadha became the most powerful state
• How early cities grew, and what trade, coins and guilds did
• How rulers collected taxes and ran the state

Why Change Began: Farming, Iron and Trade

1. Better farming

• People began to use iron tools such as the iron ploughshare (the blade of the plough), axes and sickles.
• Iron axes helped clear thick forests, and iron ploughs could turn the heavy soil of the Ganga plains, so more land could be farmed.
• Farmers also began growing more rice by transplanting seedlings, which gave a larger harvest.

2. Surplus food

When farmers produce more than their family needs, the extra is called surplus. A surplus can feed people who do not farm, such as craftspeople, traders, soldiers and officials. This made towns possible.

3. Growth of trade and crafts

Craftspeople made pots, tools, cloth, jewellery and weapons. Traders carried goods from place to place, and this brought wealth to some regions.

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

A jana was a group of people (a tribe or community). When a jana settled in an area, that area was called a janapada ("the land where the jana puts its foot"). Over time, some janapadas became bigger and stronger and were called Mahajanapadas ("maha" = great). There were sixteen Mahajanapadas.

Two Kinds of States: Kingdoms and Gana-sanghas

Gana-sanghas were smaller than the big kingdoms. Many of them were later conquered by powerful kings, especially those of Magadha.

Rise of Magadha

Among all the Mahajanapadas, Magadha (in present-day Bihar region) became the most powerful.

Reasons for Magadha's growth

• Fertile land in the Ganga plain gave good harvests and plenty of taxes.
• Rivers (Ganga, Son and others) helped farming, trade and transport.
• Iron mines nearby supplied metal for tools and weapons.
• Forests gave timber and elephants, which were useful in war.
• Strong and ambitious rulers who built big armies.

Important rulers and capitals

Early Cities and Urban Life

As states grew, many towns became cities. Important early cities included Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Ujjain and Taxila. Many were capitals of Mahajanapadas.

• Cities usually grew beside rivers or on trade routes.
• Many were protected by walls, ditches or forts, showing the need for safety.
• Different people lived there: rulers, officials, soldiers, merchants, craftspeople, labourers and teachers.
• Craft areas made pottery, metal goods, ivory and cloth items.
• Archaeologists find city remains such as walls, houses, pottery, tools and coins.

Village and city compared

Trade, Coins and Guilds

Trade

Goods moved along land routes and river routes between cities and regions. Some routes later became famous long-distance roads linking the north, east, west and south.

Coins

• Early coins are called punch-marked coins because symbols were punched on metal pieces, mostly silver.
• Coins made buying, selling and paying taxes easier than exchanging goods directly (barter).

Guilds

A guild (shreni) was an association of craftspeople or merchants of the same trade. Guilds trained workers, kept quality, helped members and sometimes lent money.

Rulers, Taxes and Administration

• Rulers needed money and food for armies, forts, palaces and officials. They collected taxes, mostly from farmers (a share of produce), and also from traders and craftspeople.
• Kings appointed officials to collect taxes, keep records and maintain order.
• Strong armies, with soldiers, horses and elephants, were used to defend the state and to conquer others.
• Larger states had capitals and forts, while villages stayed the basic units for farming and tax collection.
• Kings often took advice from councils and assemblies.

New Ideas, Languages and Learning

• This was also a time of new thinking. Buddhism and Jainism spread teachings of non-violence, truth and simple living, in languages ordinary people understood (such as Pali and Prakrit).
• Cities became centres of learning. Taxila in the north-west is remembered as a famous centre of education.
• Early scripts, such as Brahmi, were used for writing.

Timeline and Key Names

Important Terms

Chapter Summary

From about the 6th century BCE, iron tools and better farming produced surplus food. This supported craftspeople, traders and officials and allowed cities to grow. Janapadas developed into sixteen Mahajanapadas, some ruled by kings and others by gana-sanghas. Magadha became the strongest because of fertile land, rivers, iron, elephants and capable rulers, with capitals at Rajagriha and later Pataliputra. Trade, punch-marked coins and guilds made the economy stronger, and taxes funded armies and administration. It was also a time of new ideas and learning.

🔍 Quick Revision

• Period: about 6th century BCE.
• Causes of change: iron tools, more farming, surplus, trade.
• Jana → Janapada → Mahajanapada (16).
• Kingdoms: Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa. Gana-sanghas: Vajji, Malla.
• Magadha: fertile land, rivers, iron, elephants, strong rulers.
• Capitals: Rajagriha, later Pataliputra.
• Cities: Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Taxila.
• Punch-marked coins, guilds (shrenis), trade routes.
• Taxes paid for army and administration.
• Buddhism and Jainism spread; Taxila a learning centre.

Practice Questions with Answers

MCQs

Fill in the Blanks

1. A ______ is the land where a jana settled. (janapada)
2. Extra food produced beyond need is called ______. (surplus)
3. Pataliputra is modern ______. (Patna)
4. Rajagriha is modern ______. (Rajgir)
5. Trade without money is called ______. (barter)

True or False

1. Gana-sanghas were ruled by a group of leaders. True
2. Magadha was a small, weak state. False
3. Iron tools helped increase farm production. True
4. All Mahajanapadas were monarchies. False – some were gana-sanghas.
5. Coins made trade easier. True

Match the Following

Very Short / Short Answer Questions

Long Answer Questions

Frequently Asked Questions

Final Revision

Revise the chain of change (iron → farming → surplus → cities → trade → taxes → states), the meaning of jana, janapada and Mahajanapada, kingdoms versus gana-sanghas, the five reasons for Magadha's rise, the two capitals, and the roles of coins and guilds. Practise writing the long answers in your own words.

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