Chapter 2: Self and Personality

Introduction to Self and Personality

Self and personality refer to characteristic ways we define our existence and organize our experiences in behavior. While self represents who we are, personality represents relatively stable patterns of behavior across situations.

Concept of Self

Self develops through social interaction and consists of:

• Personal identity: Attributes that make a person unique (name, qualities, beliefs)
• Social identity: Aspects linking a person to social/cultural groups (religion, ethnicity)

Self as Subject and Object

• Self as subject: Active doer ("I am a dancer")
• Self as object: Passive recipient ("I am one who gets easily hurt")

Kinds of Self

• Personal self: Focused on individual needs and achievements
• Social self: Emphasizes relationships and cooperation
• Biological self: Basic awareness of physical needs

Cognitive and Behavioral Aspects of Self

Self-Concept

Our perception of our competencies and attributes, which can be:

• Overall positive or negative
• Domain-specific (e.g., positive in academics but negative in sports)

Self-Esteem

Value judgment about one's worth. By age 6-7, children develop self-esteem in four areas:

1. Academic competence
2. Social competence
3. Physical/athletic competence
4. Physical appearance

High self-esteem is associated with better performance and adjustment, while low self-esteem with anxiety and depression.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to control outcomes (Bandura's concept). People with high self-efficacy:

• Select challenging tasks
• Persist in face of difficulties
• Experience less fear

Self-Regulation

Ability to organize and monitor behavior. Techniques include:

1. Self-observation: Monitoring one's own behavior
2. Self-instruction: Giving oneself directions
3. Self-reinforcement: Rewarding oneself for positive outcomes

Culture and Self

Concept of Personality

Personality refers to characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations, with features:

1. Has both physical and psychological components
2. Expression is unique to the individual
3. Main features remain stable over time
4. Dynamic and adaptive to situations

Major Approaches to Personality

Type Approaches

Classify people into broad behavioral patterns:

Trait Approaches

Focus on specific psychological attributes along which individuals differ consistently.

Allport's Trait Theory

Classified traits into:

1. Cardinal traits: Pervasive, life-organizing traits (e.g., Gandhi's non-violence)
2. Central traits: General dispositions (e.g., warm, sincere)
3. Secondary traits: Specific preferences (e.g., likes mangoes)

Cattell's 16 Personality Factors

Identified 16 source traits through factor analysis. Developed the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

Eysenck's Theory

Proposed two (later three) broad dimensions:

1. Neuroticism vs. emotional stability
2. Extraversion vs. introversion
3. Psychoticism vs. sociability (added later)

Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)

Levels of Consciousness

1. Conscious: Current awareness
2. Preconscious: Can become aware with attention
3. Unconscious: Hidden desires and memories

Structure of Personality

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Ways to reduce anxiety by distorting reality:

• Repression: Pushing thoughts into unconscious
• Projection: Attributing own traits to others
• Denial: Refusing to accept reality
• Reaction formation: Expressing opposite of true feelings
• Rationalization: Making excuses for behavior

Psychosexual Stages

Post-Freudian Approaches

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on observable behavior and learning through:

• Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
• Operant conditioning (Skinner)
• Observational learning (Bandura)

Personality is seen as learned responses to environmental stimuli.

Cultural Approach

Personality develops as adaptation to ecological and cultural demands. Examples:

• Hunting-gathering societies: Value independence, autonomy
• Agricultural societies: Value obedience, nurturance

Humanistic Approach

Carl Rogers' Theory

Key concepts:

• Fully functioning person: Achieving one's potential
• Self-concept: Perception of oneself
• Ideal self: Person one would like to be
• Congruence: Match between real and ideal self
• Unconditional positive regard: Acceptance without conditions

Maslow's Theory

Hierarchy of needs culminating in self-actualization. Characteristics of self-actualized people:

• Accept themselves and others
• Creative and spontaneous
• Concerned about human welfare
• Strong moral/ethical standards
• Capable of deep interpersonal relationships

Assessment of Personality

Self-Report Measures

Structured tests where subjects report about themselves:

Limitations: Social desirability bias, acquiescence bias

Projective Techniques

Unstructured tests to reveal unconscious aspects:

Behavioral Analysis

Observation of behavior in various contexts:

Summary

• Self develops through social interaction and includes personal and social identities
• Self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-regulation are important aspects of behavior
• Personality is relatively stable but can change due to internal/external factors
• Major approaches include type, trait, psychodynamic, behavioral, cultural and humanistic
• Freud's psychodynamic theory emphasizes unconscious conflicts through id, ego, superego
• Humanistic approach focuses on self-actualization and personal growth
• Personality assessment uses self-reports, projective techniques and behavioral analysis
• Each assessment method has strengths and limitations