Chapter 1: Variations in Psychological Attributes
Learning Objectives
- Understand psychological attributes that differentiate people
- Learn about assessment methods for psychological attributes
- Explain intelligent behavior and its assessment
- Understand cultural differences in intelligence concepts
- Differentiate between intelligence and aptitude
Introduction to Individual Differences
Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people's characteristics and behavior patterns. These differences can be observed in every aspect of life, from physical characteristics to psychological attributes like intelligence, creativity, and personality.
Situationism Perspective
This view suggests that situations and circumstances influence behavior more than personal traits. For example, an aggressive person may behave submissively in certain situations (like with their boss).
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
Assessment involves measuring and evaluating psychological attributes using scientific procedures. It can be:
- Formal: Objective, standardized, and organized
- Informal: Varies between assessors, open to subjective interpretations
Domains of Psychological Attributes
- Intelligence: Global capacity to understand the world and think rationally
- Aptitude: Underlying potential for acquiring specific skills
- Interest: Preferences for specific activities
- Personality: Enduring characteristics that make a person distinct
- Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal behavior
Assessment Methods
| Method |
Description |
| Psychological Test |
Standardized measure of mental/behavioral characteristics (e.g., IQ tests) |
| Interview |
One-to-one information seeking (used in counseling, employment, etc.) |
| Case Study |
In-depth study of an individual in their psychosocial context |
| Observation |
Systematic recording of naturally occurring behaviors |
| Self-Report |
Individual provides information about themselves via questionnaires or diaries |
Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to adapt, shape, and select environments to accomplish goals. Different theorists have proposed various definitions:
- Alfred Binet: Ability to judge, understand, and reason well
- Wechsler: Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with environment
Theories of Intelligence
Psychometric Approaches
- Uni-factor Theory (Binet): Intelligence as one set of abilities
- Two-factor Theory (Spearman):
- g-factor (general intelligence)
- s-factors (specific abilities)
- Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone): 7 independent abilities:
- Verbal Comprehension
- Numerical Abilities
- Spatial Relations
- Perceptual Speed
- Word Fluency
- Memory
- Inductive Reasoning
- Hierarchical Model (Jensen):
- Level I: Associative learning
- Level II: Cognitive competence
- Structure-of-Intellect Model (Guilford): 180 intellectual abilities based on:
- Operations (6 types)
- Contents (5 types)
- Products (6 types)
Information-Processing Approaches
- Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner): 8 types:
| Type |
Description |
Examples |
| Linguistic |
Word smart, language use |
Poets, writers |
| Logical-Mathematical |
Logical thinking, problem solving |
Scientists, mathematicians |
| Spatial |
Visual imagery and patterns |
Pilots, architects |
| Musical |
Musical patterns and rhythms |
Musicians, composers |
| Bodily-Kinaesthetic |
Body movement control |
Athletes, dancers |
| Interpersonal |
Understanding others' behaviors |
Psychologists, leaders |
| Intrapersonal |
Self-understanding |
Philosophers |
| Naturalistic |
Understanding natural world |
Farmers, botanists |
- Triarchic Theory (Sternberg): 3 types:
- Componential/Analytical: Problem-solving, academic skills
- Experiential/Creative: Using experience for novel solutions
- Contextual/Practical: "Street smarts," adapting to environment
- PASS Model (Das, Naglieri, Kirby): 3 functional units:
- Planning: Setting goals and strategies
- Attention-Arousal: Focusing on relevant stimuli
- Simultaneous-Successive Processing:
- Simultaneous: Integrating information at once
- Successive: Processing information sequentially
Individual Differences in Intelligence
Intelligence results from both nature (heredity) and nurture (environment):
- Heredity Evidence: Twin studies show higher correlation in identical twins (0.90 together, 0.72 apart) than fraternal twins (0.60)
- Environment Evidence: Adopted children's IQ moves closer to adoptive parents'; enriched environments increase IQ
Assessment of Intelligence
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test in 1905, introducing:
- Mental Age (MA): Intellectual development relative to age group
- Intelligence Quotient (IQ): MA/CA × 100 (average = 100)
| IQ Range |
Classification |
% Population |
| Above 130 |
Very superior |
2.2% |
| 120-129 |
Superior |
6.7% |
| 110-119 |
High average |
16.1% |
| 90-109 |
Average |
50.0% |
| 80-89 |
Low average |
16.1% |
| 70-79 |
Borderline |
6.7% |
| Below 70 |
Intellectually disabled |
2.2% |
Variations of Intelligence
Intellectual Disability
Defined by three features:
- Sub-average intellectual functioning (IQ < 70)
- Deficits in adaptive behavior
- Manifested during developmental period (0-18 years)
Levels of intellectual disability:
- Mild (IQ 55-70): Can function independently
- Moderate (IQ 35-55): Need moderate supervision
- Severe (IQ 20-35): Need extensive support
- Profound (IQ < 20): Need constant care
Intellectual Giftedness
Giftedness involves high ability, high creativity, and high commitment. Characteristics include:
- Advanced logical thinking and problem-solving
- High information processing speed
- Superior generalization ability
- Original and creative thinking
- High intrinsic motivation
- Independent thinking
Types of Intelligence Tests
| Classification |
Types |
Description |
| Administration |
Individual vs Group |
One-on-one vs mass testing |
| Nature of Items |
Verbal vs Non-verbal vs Performance |
Language-based vs visual vs object manipulation |
| Cultural Context |
Culture-fair vs Culture-biased |
Universal vs culture-specific items |
Indian Intelligence Tests
Some tests developed in India:
- Bhatia's Battery of Performance Tests
- Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak
- Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin
- Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance Intelligence Scale
Culture and Intelligence
Cultural context shapes intelligence concepts:
- Western Cultures: Value "technological intelligence" (analysis, speed, achievement)
- Non-Western Cultures: Value social-emotional competence, self-reflection
- Indian Tradition: "Integral intelligence" (buddhi) includes:
- Cognitive capacity
- Social competence
- Emotional competence
- Entrepreneurial competence
Emotional Intelligence
Defined as the ability to:
- Monitor one's own and others' emotions
- Discriminate among emotions
- Use emotional information to guide thinking
Measured by Emotional Quotient (EQ). Characteristics of emotionally intelligent persons:
- Perceive and understand emotions in self and others
- Relate emotions to thoughts and decisions
- Understand emotional influences
- Regulate emotions effectively
Special Abilities: Aptitude
Aptitude refers to potential for acquiring specific skills after training. Key points:
- Differs from intelligence (general vs specific)
- Differs from interest (potential vs preference)
- Types of aptitude tests:
- Independent (specific): Clerical, Mechanical, etc.
- Multiple (batteries): DAT, GATB, ASVAB
Creativity
Ability to produce novel, appropriate, and useful ideas/solutions. Characteristics:
- Not limited to high-IQ individuals
- Involves divergent thinking (vs convergent in IQ tests)
- Shows threshold effect: Some intelligence needed, but high IQ doesn't guarantee creativity
- Influenced by both heredity and environment
Creativity vs Intelligence
| Aspect |
Creativity |
Intelligence |
| Thinking Style |
Divergent (multiple solutions) |
Convergent (single solution) |
| Focus |
Originality, novelty |
Accuracy, logic |
| Tests |
Open-ended, no right answers |
Structured, correct answers |
Key Terms
Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextual intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor, Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intellectual disability, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ), Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Observational method, Planning, Psychological test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.
Summary
- Individuals vary in physical and psychological characteristics
- Psychological attributes can be assessed through various methods
- Intelligence is the capacity to adapt to environment, influenced by nature and nurture
- Psychometric approaches (Spearman, Thurstone) view intelligence as abilities
- Information-processing approaches (Gardner, Sternberg, PASS) focus on cognitive processes
- Intelligence tests can be individual/group, verbal/non-verbal, culture-fair/biassed
- Cultural differences exist in intelligence conceptualization (technological vs integral)
- Emotional intelligence involves perceiving and managing emotions
- Aptitude refers to specific potential, different from general intelligence
- Creativity involves novel solutions, related to but distinct from intelligence