Chapter-2 Era of One-Party Dominance - (Detailed Notes)

Introduction

The first decade after India's independence in 1947 was marked by the challenge of establishing democratic politics alongside nation-building. This chapter examines the electoral politics from 1952 to 1967, focusing on:

• The establishment of a system of free and fair elections.
• The dominance of the Indian National Congress party in the early years.
• The emergence of opposition parties and their policies.

Challenge of Building Democracy

Context of Independence

• Many newly independent countries opted for non-democratic rule, prioritizing national unity over democracy due to fears of conflict and division.
• Forms of non-democratic rule included:
  • Nominal democracy with control by one leader.
  • One-party rule.
  • Direct military rule.
• Non-democratic regimes often promised to restore democracy but rarely did so once entrenched.

India’s Democratic Choice

• India’s leaders chose democracy despite challenges, influenced by the freedom struggle’s commitment to democratic ideals.
• Politics was seen as a solution to resolve differences and pursue public interest, not as a problem.
• The Constitution, adopted on 26 November 1949 and effective from 26 January 1950, laid down democratic rules.
• An interim government ruled until the first democratically elected government was installed.

Setting Up the Electoral System

• The Election Commission of India was established in January 1950, with Sukumar Sen as the first Chief Election Commissioner.
• Initial plans for elections in 1950 were delayed due to logistical challenges.
• Key tasks included:
  • Delimitation: Drawing boundaries of electoral constituencies.
  • Preparing electoral rolls: Listing all eligible voters.
• Challenges in preparing electoral rolls:
  • Nearly 40 lakh women were listed as “wife of” or “daughter of” without names.
  • The Election Commission ordered revisions or deletions, ensuring proper identification.

First General Election (1951-1952)

Scale and Challenges

• The first general election, held from October 1951 to February 1952 (commonly referred to as the 1952 election), was a massive exercise.
• Key statistics:
  • 17 crore eligible voters.
  • Elections for 3,200 MLAs and 489 Lok Sabha members.
  • Only 15% of voters were literate.

  Challenges Faced by Election Commission During First General Election

  • Illiteracy of the majority population
  • Vast size and diversity of the country
  • Lack of electoral infrastructure
  • Inadequate trained personnel
  • Complex geography and remote locations
  • Designing of electoral rolls from scratch
  • Printing and distribution of millions of ballot papers
  

  Challeges of ECI in 1st general Election

Voting Methods

• Due to low literacy, a unique voting method was used:
  • Each candidate had a box with their election symbol.
  • Voters dropped a blank ballot paper into the box of their chosen candidate.
  • About 20 lakh steel boxes were used, each labeled with the candidate’s symbol and name in multiple languages (e.g., Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi).
• Preparation of ballot boxes was labor-intensive, taking hours to label and seal.
• Post-1957, the method changed to ballot papers with candidate names and symbols, where voters stamped their choice.
• By the late 1990s, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) were introduced, fully adopted by 2004.

Significance

• The election was a bold experiment with universal adult franchise in a poor, largely illiterate country.
• Critics, including an Indian editor and a British official, called it a risky gamble, predicting failure.
• Key features:
  • Competitive elections with an average of over four candidates per seat.
  • High voter turnout (over 50%).
  • Results accepted as fair, even by losers.
• The 1952 election proved democracy could thrive in conditions of poverty and illiteracy, setting a global precedent.

Congress Dominance in the First Three General Elections (1952-1967)

Election Results

• The Indian National Congress dominated due to:
  • Its legacy as the leader of the freedom struggle.
  • Nationwide organizational network.
  • Charismatic leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru.
• 1952 Election:
  • Congress won 364 of 489 Lok Sabha seats.
  • Communist Party of India (CPI) was the second largest, winning 16 seats.
• 1957 and 1962 Elections:
  • Congress maintained dominance, winning 266 seats in 1962 (out of ~500).
  • State elections mirrored Lok Sabha trends, with Congress ruling most states.
• Exceptions:
  • Kerala: Democratic Left Front (1957-1959).
  • Jammu & Kashmir: National Conference.

Reasons for Congress Victory in First Three General Elections

• Legacy of the freedom struggle
• Leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru and others
• Organisational strength
• Presence at the grassroots level
• Weak and fragmented opposition
• Popular social and economic policies
• Effective use of caste and regional alliances
• Stability and experience compared to new parties


Why Congress won 1st three general Elections

Nature of Congress Dominance

• Unlike one-party dominance in countries like China, Cuba, or Syria (where single-party rule was constitutionally or militarily enforced), Congress dominance occurred under democratic conditions.
• Similar to the African National Congress in post-apartheid South Africa, Congress won repeatedly in free and fair elections.
• Reasons for dominance:
  • Legacy of Freedom Struggle: Congress was seen as the inheritor of the national movement, with leaders like Nehru, Patel, and Azad contesting as Congress candidates.
  • Organizational Strength: Congress had a nationwide network, unlike newer opposition parties.
  • First-Mover Advantage: Congress began campaigning early, while other parties were still forming.

Congress as a Social and Ideological Coalition

• Congress evolved from a 1885 pressure group of English-speaking, upper-caste elites to a mass movement by the 20th century.
• By independence, it represented a diverse social coalition:
  • Classes: Peasants, industrialists, workers, owners.
  • Regions: Urban and rural populations.
  • Castes: Upper, middle, and lower castes.
  • Religions and languages: All major groups.
• Ideological coalition:
  • Included revolutionaries and pacifists, conservatives and radicals, right and left ideologies.
  • Acted as a platform for diverse groups, including those with separate organizational structures (e.g., Congress Socialist Party).
• This inclusivity broadened its appeal and strengthened its electoral dominance.

Tolerance and Management of Factions

• Congress’s coalition-like nature allowed it to:
  • Accommodate diverse groups, avoiding extreme positions.
  • Tolerate internal differences and factions.
• Factions were based on:
  • Ideological differences (e.g., socialist vs. conservative wings).
  • Personal ambitions and rivalries.
• Benefits of factionalism:
  • Kept diverse groups within the party, preventing splits.
  • Allowed internal competition, reducing the need for external opposition.
• Congress acted as both the ruling party and the opposition, a phenomenon termed the “Congress system.”
• Opposition parties influenced Congress indirectly by aligning with its factions, but they lacked direct authority.

Emergence of Opposition Parties

Role and Significance

• Despite Congress dominance, India had a vibrant multi-party system with diverse opposition parties.
• Opposition parties:
  • Had token representation in Lok Sabha and state assemblies.
  • Played a crucial role in maintaining democracy by offering principled criticism.
  • Kept Congress in check and influenced its policies.
  • Prevented anti-democratic resentment by keeping political alternatives alive.
  • Groomed leaders who later shaped Indian politics.
• Early mutual respect existed between Congress and opposition leaders, e.g.:
  • Nehru invited Jayaprakash Narayan to join his government.
  • Opposition leaders like Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee served in the interim government.
• This respect declined as party competition intensified.

Major Opposition Parties

• Socialist Party (SP):
  • Origins: Congress Socialist Party (CSP) formed in 1934 within Congress, advocating radical and egalitarian policies.
  • Formation: Became a separate party in 1948 after Congress banned dual membership.
  • Ideology: Democratic socialism, distinct from Congress and Communists; criticized Congress for favoring capitalists and landlords.
  • Challenges: Congress’s adoption of a “socialist pattern of society” in 1955 diluted SP’s appeal.
  • Leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Asoka Mehta, Acharya Narendra Dev, Rammanohar Lohia, S.M. Joshi.
  • Splits: Formed Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, Praja Socialist Party, Samyukta Socialist Party.
  • Legacy: Influenced modern parties like Samajwadi Party, Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal (United), Janata Dal (Secular).
  • Electoral Performance: Limited success, with presence in most states but strong only in pockets.
• Communist Party of India (CPI):
  • Origins: Emerged in the 1920s, inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution, advocating socialism.
  • Pre-Independence: Worked within Congress until 1941, when it supported the British in World War II, leading to a split.
  • Post-Independence: Questioned the legitimacy of 1947 independence, leading to violent uprisings in Telangana, which were suppressed.
  • Shift: Abandoned violence by 1951 and participated in elections, winning 16 Lok Sabha seats in 1952, becoming the largest opposition party.
  • Support Base: Strong in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.
  • Leaders: A.K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh, P. Sundarraya.
  • Split: In 1964, divided into CPI (pro-Soviet) and CPI(M) (pro-China).
• Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS):
  • Formation: Founded in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, with roots in Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Hindu Mahasabha.
  • Ideology:
  • 1.Emphasized “one country, one culture, one nation,” rooted in Indian culture and traditions.
  • 2.Advocated for Akhand Bharat (reunion of India and Pakistan).
  • 3.Promoted Hindi as the official language, opposing English.
  • 4.Opposed concessions to religious and cultural minorities.
  • 5.Supported nuclear weapons development post-China’s 1964 tests.
  • Electoral Performance: Won 3 seats in 1952 and 4 in 1957, with support in urban areas of Hindi-speaking states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh).
  • Leaders: Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya, Balraj Madhok.
  • Legacy: Precursor to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).

Key Figures

• Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): First Prime Minister; led Congress campaigns; championed democracy and secularism.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950): Deputy PM; pushed for a disciplined Congress party.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958): Congress leader; Education Minister; advocated Hindu-Muslim unity.
• B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956): Chairman of the Drafting Committee; Minister in Nehru’s cabinet; resigned over Hindu Code Bill differences.
• Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1901-1953): Founder of Bharatiya Jana Sangh; resigned from Nehru’s cabinet over Pakistan policy.
• Rafi Ahmed Kidwai (1894-1954): Congress leader; Minister for Communications and Food & Agriculture.
• Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979): Socialist leader; declined Nehru’s offer to join the government.
• A.K. Gopalan (1904-1977): Communist leader; respected parliamentarian.
• Deen Dayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968): Bharatiya Jana Sangh leader; developed integral humanism.