Chapter-5 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System - Detailed Notes

Introduction

The Congress system, dominant in Indian politics post-independence, faced significant challenges in the 1960s due to intensified political competition and internal divisions. This chapter explores:

• The political transition after Jawaharlal Nehru’s death.
• The impact of opposition unity and the Congress split on its dominance.
• How Indira Gandhi’s leadership restored Congress’s position.
• The role of new policies and ideologies in reshaping the Congress system.

The period marked a shift from Congress’s unchallenged dominance to a more competitive political landscape, culminating in a transformed Congress under Indira Gandhi.

Challenge of Political Succession

Context

• Nehru’s Death (1964): Jawaharlal Nehru’s passing in May 1964 raised questions about leadership succession and the survival of India’s democratic experiment.
• Global Skepticism: Many doubted India’s ability to manage democratic succession, fearing military intervention or disintegration, labeling the 1960s as the “dangerous decade” due to unresolved issues like poverty, inequality, and communal divisions.
• Quote:
  “France or Canada have similar problems, no one talks about failure or disintegration. Why are we under this constant suspicion?” – Contemporary sentiment, 1964

From Nehru to Shastri

• Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966):
  • Profile: Freedom fighter, UP minister, Congress General Secretary, Union Minister (1951-1956, 1957-1964). Resigned as Railway Minister in 1956, accepting moral responsibility for a train accident.
  • Selection: Chosen unanimously as Congress parliamentary leader after Nehru’s death, facilitated by K. Kamaraj’s consultations, proving critics wrong about democratic succession.
  • Tenure (1964-1966): Faced economic fallout from the 1962 China war, drought, food crisis, and the 1965 Indo-Pak war.
  • Slogan: “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” symbolized resolve to address military and agricultural challenges.
  • Death: Died suddenly in Tashkent (January 10, 1966) after signing the Tashkent Agreement with Pakistan’s Ayub Khan to end the 1965 war.
• Significance: Shastri’s selection demonstrated India’s democratic maturity, countering fears of instability.

From Shastri to Indira Gandhi

• Context: Shastri’s sudden death necessitated another leadership transition within two years.
• Competition:
  • Morarji Desai: Former Bombay CM and Union Minister, a senior Congress leader.
  • Indira Gandhi (1917-1984): Nehru’s daughter, Congress President (1958), Union Minister for Information under Shastri.
• Selection: Senior Congress leaders backed Indira Gandhi, expecting her inexperience to make her reliant on them. She won a secret ballot among Congress MPs, defeating Desai with over two-thirds support.
• Significance: The peaceful transition amidst intense competition reinforced India’s democratic credentials.
• Challenges for Indira:
  • Limited ministerial experience and perceived as a novice.
  • Faced a deteriorating economic situation and the 1967 Lok Sabha elections within a year.

Fourth General Elections (1967)

Context

• Political Climate:
  • Two PM deaths in quick succession (Nehru, Shastri) and Indira’s inexperience weakened Congress.
  • Economic crisis: Failed monsoons, drought, food shortages, declining industrial production, and depleted foreign reserves.
  • Rupee devaluation (from ~Rs. 5 to >Rs. 7 per USD) under US pressure fueled price rises and public discontent.
• Public Unrest:
  • Protests against price rises, unemployment, and food scarcity led to frequent bandhs and hartals.
  • Government treated protests as law-and-order issues, increasing public bitterness.
  • Communist and socialist parties pushed for equality, while Hindu-Muslim riots worsened social tensions.
• Regional Example: In Madras, the DMK led anti-Hindi agitations, capitalizing on linguistic sentiments.

Non-Congressism

• Concept: Coined by Ram Manohar Lohia, it urged opposition parties to unite against Congress, arguing its rule was undemocratic and anti-poor.
• Key Figure: Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967), socialist leader, advocated non-Congressism, backward caste reservations, and opposed English.

Electoral Verdict

• National Level:
  • Congress secured a Lok Sabha majority but with its lowest seat tally and vote share since 1952.
  • Notable defeats: K. Kamaraj (Tamil Nadu), S.K. Patil (Maharashtra), Atulya Ghosh (West Bengal), K.B. Sahay (Bihar).
• State Level:
  • Congress lost majorities in seven states: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa.
  • Defections prevented Congress governments in two others (e.g., Madhya Pradesh, Haryana).
  • DMK won a clear majority in Madras (Tamil Nadu), the first non-Congress party to do so in any state.
  • Coalition governments (Samyukt Vidhayak Dal) formed in eight states, often with ideologically diverse partners (e.g., Bihar’s SVD included SSP, PSP, CPI, Jana Sangh).
• Impact: Described as a “political earthquake,” the results showed Congress’s vulnerability, though no single alternative emerged.

Coalitions and Defections

• Coalitions:
  • Non-Congress parties formed coalitions (SVD in Hindi states, Popular United Front in Punjab) due to lack of single-party majorities.
  • Ideological incongruence (e.g., left-wing CPI and right-wing Jana Sangh) made coalitions unstable.
• Defections:
  • Elected representatives switching parties destabilized governments, notably in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
  • Aya Ram, Gaya Ram: Originated from Haryana MLA Gaya Lal’s rapid party-switching in 1967, leading to the phrase symbolizing political opportunism.
  • Later, the Constitution was amended (Anti-Defection Law) to curb this practice.
• Outcome: Most non-Congress coalitions collapsed due to defections or internal conflicts, leading to President’s Rule in several states.

Split in the Congress

The Syndicate

• Definition: A group of influential Congress leaders controlling the party organization, led by K. Kamaraj (former Tamil Nadu CM, Congress President).
• Members: S.K. Patil (Bombay), S. Nijalingappa (Mysore), N. Sanjeeva Reddy (Andhra Pradesh), Atulya Ghosh (West Bengal).
• Role:
  • Instrumental in selecting Shastri and Indira Gandhi as PMs.
  • Influenced Indira’s initial Council of Ministers and policy decisions, expecting her to follow their guidance.

Indira vs. Syndicate

• Challenge: Indira sought independence from the Syndicate’s control to strengthen her leadership and recover Congress’s 1967 losses.
• Strategy:
  • Relied on trusted advisors outside the party, sidelining Syndicate leaders.
  • Transformed the power struggle into an ideological battle, adopting a left-wing agenda.
• Ten Point Programme (1967): Adopted by Congress Working Committee, included:
  • Social control of banks.
  • Nationalization of general insurance.
  • Ceiling on urban property and income.
  • Public distribution of food grains.
  • Land reforms and housing for rural poor.
• Syndicate approved it formally but had reservations, highlighting ideological differences.

Presidential Election (1969)

• Context: President Zakir Hussain’s death led to a contest for the presidency, exposing factional rivalry.
• Syndicate’s Move: Nominated N. Sanjeeva Reddy (Lok Sabha Speaker, Indira’s rival) as the official Congress candidate.
• Indira’s Counter:
  • Encouraged Vice-President V.V. Giri to run as an independent.
  • Announced populist measures: nationalization of 14 private banks and abolition of privy purses.
  • Called for a “conscience vote,” defying the Congress whip to support Reddy.
• Outcome:
  • V.V. Giri won, defeating Reddy, marking a major victory for Indira.
  • Congress President S. Nijalingappa expelled Indira, formalizing the split.
  • Two factions emerged:
    • Congress (O): Syndicate-led, “Old Congress,” conservative.
    • Congress (R): Indira-led, “Requisitionists,” socialist, claimed to be the “real” Congress.
• Ideological Framing: Indira projected the split as a divide between pro-poor socialists (Congress-R) and pro-rich conservatives (Congress-O).

Abolition of Privy Purse

• Background: Princely states’ integration included grants (privy purses) for former rulers, criticized as inconsistent with equality and justice.
• Nehru’s View: Opposed hereditary privileges but prioritized integration initially.
• Indira’s Push:
  • Post-1967, supported abolition to align with socialist goals.
  • Faced opposition from Morarji Desai (Deputy PM), who called it a “breach of faith.”
  • 1970 constitutional amendment failed in Rajya Sabha; an ordinance was struck down by the Supreme Court.
  • Made a major election issue in 1971, gaining public support.
  • Post-1971 victory, the Constitution was amended to abolish privy purses.

1971 Election and Restoration of Congress

Context

• Minority Government: Post-split, Congress(R) was a minority government, surviving with support from CPI and DMK.
• Strategy:
  • Projected socialist credentials through land reforms and ceiling legislation.
  • Indira recommended Lok Sabha dissolution in December 1970 for early elections (February 1971) to seek a fresh mandate.

The Contest

• Congress(R)-CPI Alliance: Focused on a positive agenda with the slogan “Garibi Hatao” (Remove Poverty).
• Grand Alliance: Non-communist opposition parties (SSP, PSP, BJS, Swatantra, BKD) united but lacked a coherent program, rallying under “Indira Hatao” (Remove Indira).
• Indira’s Agenda:
  • Growth of public sector.
  • Ceilings on land and urban property.
  • Removal of income disparities.
  • Abolition of princely privileges.
• Support Base: Targeted landless laborers, Dalits, Adivasis, minorities, women, and unemployed youth.

Outcome

• Results:
  • Congress(R)-CPI won 375 Lok Sabha seats (48.4% votes), with Congress(R) securing 352 seats (44% votes).
  • Congress(O) won only 16 seats, a fraction of Congress(R)’s tally.
  • Grand Alliance secured fewer than 60 seats, a major failure.
• Impact:
  • Congress(R) established itself as the “real” Congress, restoring its dominance.
  • 1971 Bangladesh war victory and 1972 state election sweeps further boosted Indira’s popularity.
  • Indira was seen as a protector of the poor and a strong nationalist leader.

Restoration of Congress System?

• New Congress:
  • Not a revival of the old Congress system but a reinvention under Indira’s leadership.
  • Relied heavily on Indira’s personal popularity rather than organizational strength.
  • Had a weaker structure, fewer factions, and less capacity to accommodate diverse opinions.
  • Depended on specific social groups: poor, women, Dalits, Adivasis, minorities.
• Limitations:
  • Reduced democratic space for expressing aspirations.
  • Increased centralization and reliance on a single leader led to vulnerabilities, setting the stage for future crises (e.g., Emergency).
• Quote:
  “Indira Gandhi changed the Congress into a highly centralised and undemocratic party organisation… the Congress party as a political organisation died.” – Sudepta Kaviraj

Key Figures

• Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): Architect of the Congress system, died in 1964, triggering succession challenges.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966): PM (1964-1966), known for “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan,” died in Tashkent.
• Indira Gandhi (1917-1984): PM (1966-1977, 1980-1984), transformed Congress with socialist policies and personal leadership.
• K. Kamaraj (1903-1975): Congress President, Syndicate leader, architect of Shastri and Indira’s selections.
• Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967): Socialist leader, pioneered non-Congressism.
• V.V. Giri (1894-1980): President (1969-1974), won 1969 election with Indira’s support.
• Morarji Desai (1896-1995): Rival to Indira, opposed privy purse abolition, left government in 1969.

Questions and Activities

Multiple Choice

• 1. Correct statements about 1967 elections:
  • (a) Congress won Lok Sabha but lost Assembly elections in many states – Correct.
  • (b) Congress lost both Lok Sabha and Assembly elections – Incorrect.
  • (c) Congress lost Lok Sabha majority but formed a coalition – Incorrect.
  • (d) Congress retained power with increased majority – Incorrect.

Matching

• (a) Syndicate – A group of powerful and influential leaders within the Congress.
• (b) Defection – An elected representative leaving the party on whose ticket s/he was elected.
• (c) Slogan – A catchy phrase that attracts public attention.
• (d) Anti-Congressism – Parties with different ideological positions coming together to oppose Congress.

Slogan Identification

• (a) Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan – Lal Bahadur Shastri.
• (b) Indira Hatao – Grand Alliance (1971).
• (c) Garibi Hatao – Indira Gandhi.

Grand Alliance Statement

• 4. Correct statement:
  • (a) Formed by non-Communist, non-Congress parties – Correct.
  • (b) Had a clear political and ideological programme – Incorrect.
  • (c) Formed by all non-Congress parties – Incorrect.

Resolving Internal Differences

• 5. Suggestions:
  • (a) Follow party president:
    • Advantage: Ensures unity and quick decisions.
    • Shortcoming: May suppress dissent, leading to authoritarianism (e.g., Indira’s centralization).
  • (b) Listen to majority group:
    • Advantage: Democratic and reflects majority will.
    • Shortcoming: May marginalize minorities, causing splits (e.g., Syndicate vs. Indira).
  • (c) Secret ballot voting:
    • Advantage: Ensures fairness and anonymity, as in Indira’s 1966 selection.
    • Shortcoming: Time-consuming and may not resolve deep ideological divides.
  • (d) Consult senior leaders:
    • Advantage: Leverages experience, as Kamaraj did in 1964.
    • Shortcoming: May favor entrenched elites, stifling new leadership (e.g., Syndicate’s control).

Reasons for Congress’s 1967 Defeat

• 6. Reasons:
  • (a) Absence of a charismatic leader – Partially True: Nehru’s absence weakened Congress, but Shastri and Indira were capable, though less iconic.
  • (b) Split within Congress – False: Formal split occurred in 1969, not 1967, though factionalism existed.
  • (c) Increased mobilization of regional, ethnic, communal groups – True: E.g., DMK’s anti-Hindi agitation in Madras tapped regional sentiments.
  • (d) Increasing unity among non-Congress parties – True: Non-Congressism and anti-Congress fronts reduced Congress’s vote share.
  • (e) Internal differences within Congress – True: Factionalism and Syndicate’s influence undermined unity.

Short Answer Questions

• 7. Factors for Indira Gandhi’s popularity in early 1970s:
  • Socialist Policies: Bank nationalization, privy purse abolition, and “Garibi Hatao” appealed to the poor, Dalits, Adivasis, and minorities.
  • 1971 Election Victory: Congress(R)’s landslide win established Indira’s leadership.
  • Bangladesh War (1971): Decisive victory enhanced her nationalist image.
  • 1972 State Elections: Congress’s sweeps reinforced her dominance.
• 8. Syndicate’s meaning and role:
  • Meaning: A group of powerful Congress leaders (Kamaraj, Patil, Nijalingappa, Reddy, Ghosh) controlling the party organization.
  • Role: Selected Shastri and Indira as PMs, influenced Indira’s early policies, and expected her compliance. Lost power post-1969 split as Congress(R) gained popularity.
• 9. Major issue for 1969 Congress split:
  • The 1969 presidential election, where the Syndicate nominated N. Sanjeeva Reddy and Indira backed V.V. Giri, led to a showdown. Indira’s call for a “conscience vote” and Giri’s victory, coupled with her socialist policies (bank nationalization, privy purse abolition), formalized the split into Congress(O) and Congress(R).