Colonialism and the Countryside

Exploring Official Archives - Class 12 History Notes

1. Bengal and the Zamindars

1.1 An Auction in Burdwan (1797)

Under the Permanent Settlement (1793), zamindars had to pay fixed revenue to the East India Company. Failure led to estate auctions. The Raja of Burdwan's estates were auctioned, but 95% sales were fictitious as his agents bought lands back.

1.2 The Problem of Unpaid Revenue

75% zamindaris changed hands post-Permanent Settlement. British aimed to:

• Stabilize revenue flow
• Encourage agricultural investment
• Create loyal landowning class

1.3 Why Zamindars Defaulted

Reasons for payment failures:

• Excessively high initial revenue demands
• Low agricultural prices in 1790s
• Invariable revenue regardless of harvest (Sunset Law)
• Restricted zamindar powers (disbanded troops, curtailed courts)

1.4 The Rise of the Jotedars

Rich peasants who:

• Controlled thousands of acres
• Engaged in trade/moneylending
• Used sharecroppers (bargadars)
• Resisted zamindar authority
• Often purchased auctioned zamindari lands

1.5 The Zamindars Resist

Strategies to retain control:

• Fictitious sales (benami purchases)
• Transferring property to women (exempt from takeover)
• Manipulating auctions through agents
• Using lathyals (armed retainers) to intimidate

1.6 The Fifth Report (1813)

1002-page report to British Parliament with:

• Petitions from zamindars/ryots
• District collector reports
• Revenue statistics

2. The Hoe and the Plough

2.1 In the Hills of Rajmahal

Paharias (hill folk) practiced:

• Shifting cultivation (jhum)
• Forest produce collection (mahua, silk cocoons)
• Charcoal production
• Raiding plains for tribute

2.2 The Santhals: Pioneer Settlers

From 1780s, Santhals:

• Were encouraged by British to settle (Damin-i-Koh demarcated 1832)
• Cleared forests for plough agriculture
• Grew from 40 villages (1838) to 1,473 (1851)
• Displaced Paharias to upper hills

2.3 The Accounts of Buchanan

Francis Buchanan's surveys (as Company employee):

• Focused on commercial potential
• Criticized forest lifestyles
• Promoted settled agriculture

3. A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan

3.1 Account Books are Burnt (1875)

Ryots attacked moneylenders in Poona/Ahmednagar:

• Burned bahi khatas (account books)
• Looted grain shops
• Spread over 6,500 sq km
• 951 arrested

3.2 Ryotwari Settlement

Different from Permanent Settlement:

• Direct settlement with ryots
• Revenue reassessed every 30 years
• Based on Ricardian rent theory

3.3 Revenue Demand and Peasant Debt

Problems:

• High initial demands caused migrations
• 1832-34 famine worsened conditions
• Ryots became dependent on moneylenders

3.4 The Cotton Boom (1860s)

Due to American Civil War:

• Indian cotton exports surged
• Cotton acreage doubled (1860-64)
• 90% of British imports came from India by 1862

3.5 Credit Dries Up (Post-1865)

When American production revived:

• Prices fell
• Moneylenders stopped loans
• New revenue settlement doubled demands

3.6 The Experience of Injustice

Ryot grievances:

• Violation of customary interest norms
• Limitation Law (1859) circumvented
• Forced to sign deeds they didn't understand
• Harvests taken without proper accounting

4. The Deccan Riots Commission

Established after 1875 revolt produced:

• Statements from ryots, sahukars, witnesses
• Revenue/price statistics
• District collector reports

Key Terms

• Zamindar: Revenue collector for Company, not landowner
• Jotedar: Rich peasant-moneylender-traders
• Paharias
• Santhals: Settled agriculturists who cleared forests
• Ryotwari: Revenue system with direct settlement with cultivators
• Damin-i-Koh: Santhal reserve area demarcated 1832
• Benami: Fictitious transactions to circumvent laws