Class 12 History Chapter 7 - An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

1. THE DISCOVERY OF HAMPI

Ruins discovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie (first Surveyor General of India)
Initial information from priests of Virupaksha temple and Pampadevi shrine
From 1856: Photographers began recording monuments
From 1836: Epigraphists collected inscriptions in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit
Information collated from foreign travelers' accounts and local literature

2. RAYAS, NAYAKAS AND SULTANS

2.1 Kings and traders

Empire founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (tradition and epigraphic evidence)
Called karnataka samrajyamu by contemporaries
Competed with Deccan Sultans and Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of fertile river valleys and trade
Built on traditions of Cholas and Hoysalas (e.g., Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur)
Horse trade crucial - initially controlled by Arabs, later by Portuguese (from 1498)
Markets for spices, textiles, precious stones contributed to prosperity

2.2 The apogee and decline of the empire

Dynasties:
- Sangama (till 1485)
- Saluvas (military commanders, till 1503)
- Tuluvas (including Krishnadeva Raya)
- Aravidu (1542-end of 17th century)
Krishnadeva Raya's achievements (1509-29):
- Acquired Raichur doab (1512)
- Subdued Orissa rulers (1514)
- Defeated Sultan of Bijapur (1520)
- Built temples and added gopurams
- Founded Nagalapuram township
Decline:
- Rebellious nayakas after 1529
- Defeat at Rakshasi-Tangadi/Talikota (1565) against combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda
- City sacked and abandoned

2.3 The rayas and the nayakas

Amara-nayaka system (likely derived from Delhi Sultanate's iqta system)
Military commanders given territories to govern
Collected taxes, maintained military contingents (horses, elephants)
Part revenue for temples and irrigation works
Sent annual tribute to king, appeared in court with gifts
Many established independent kingdoms in 17th century, hastening empire's collapse

Map 1: South India, c. fourteenth-eighteenth century

3. VIJAYANAGARA: THE CAPITAL AND ITS ENVIRONS

3.1 Water resources

Natural basin formed by Tungabhadra river with granite hills
Streams with embankments to create reservoirs
Kamalapuram tank (early 15th century) irrigated fields and supplied royal centre
Hiriya canal (Sangama dynasty) irrigated valley between sacred and urban areas

3.2 Fortifications and roads

Seven lines of forts encircling city, agricultural hinterland and forests
Massive masonry without mortar - wedge-shaped stone blocks with earth/rubble core
Agricultural tracts within fortified area to withstand sieges
Inner fortifications around urban core and royal centre
Distinctive gateways with Indo-Islamic architectural features (arches, domes)
Roads wound through valleys, lined by bazaars, some extending from temple gateways

3.3 The urban core

Little evidence of ordinary houses (described by Barbosa as thatched but well-arranged)
Fine Chinese porcelain found in north-eastern corner (rich traders/Muslim quarter)
Tombs and mosques resembling temple mandapas
Numerous shrines and small temples indicating variety of cults
Wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks as water sources

4. THE ROYAL CENTRE

Located in south-western part, included over 60 temples
About 30 building complexes identified as palaces (masonry base with perishable superstructure)

4.1 The mahanavami dibba

Massive platform (11,000 sq.ft base, 40 ft height) with relief carvings
Probably used during Mahanavami/Dussehra festival (Sept-Oct)
Rituals included:
- Worship of image and state horse
- Animal sacrifices
- Dances, wrestling, processions
- Nayakas presenting gifts
- Army inspection on last day
Symbolized royal prestige and power

4.2 Other buildings in the royal centre

Lotus Mahal (possibly council chamber) with Indo-Islamic arches
Hazara Rama temple (for royal family) with Ramayana panels
Elephant stables (unique architectural feature)

5. THE SACRED CENTRE

5.1 Choosing a capital

Rocky northern end on Tungabhadra banks
Associated with Ramayana (monkey kingdom) and local goddess Pampadevi
Pre-Vijayanagara Jaina temples also present
Rulers claimed to rule on behalf of god Virupaksha
Royal orders signed "Shri Virupaksha" (Kannada script)
Used title "Hindu Suratrana" (Hindu Sultan)

5.2 Gopurams and mandapas

New features: immense scale, royal gateways (raya gopurams) dwarfing central shrines
Mandapas (pavilions) and pillared corridors around shrines
Virupaksha temple:
- Earliest shrine (9th-10th century), enlarged by Vijayanagara rulers
- Hall built by Krishnadeva Raya with carved pillars
- Eastern gopuram added by him
- Halls used for music, dance, deity marriages, swinging rituals
Vitthala temple:
- Vitthala form of Vishnu (Maharashtra origin)
- Unique chariot shrine
- Chariot streets with pillared pavilions for merchants

Fig. 7.20: Aerial view of Virupaksha temple

Fig. 7.21: Plan of Virupaksha temple

Fig. 7.24: Chariot of Vitthala temple

6. PLOTTING PALACES, TEMPLES AND BAZAARS

Detailed documentation project launched in 1980s
Area divided into 25 squares, then subdivided systematically
Traces of thousands of structures recovered (shrines, residences, roads, bazaars)
Wooden elements (columns, beams, towers) lost but described by travelers

Fig. 7.27-7.30: Detailed maps of the site

7. QUESTIONS IN SEARCH OF ANSWERS

Buildings reveal space organization, materials, techniques, cultural influences
But don't tell us about ordinary people's perspectives
Unanswered questions:
- Access to royal/sacred centers for common people
- Thoughts of workers and artisans
- Planning and supervision processes
- Origins of specialized workers
- Transport of building materials

Fig. 7.31: Statue of Krishnadeva Raya at Chidambaram vs Paes's description of him

TIMELINE 1: MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

c.1200-1300: Delhi Sultanate established (1206)
c.1300-1400: Vijayanagara Empire (1336?), Bahmani kingdom (1347)
c.1400-1500: Gajapati kingdom of Orissa (1435), Sultanates of Gujarat/Malwa
c.1500-1600: Portuguese conquer Goa (1510), Mughal empire (1526)

TIMELINE 2: DISCOVERY AND CONSERVATION

1800: Colin Mackenzie visits
1856: First photographs by Alexander Greenlaw
1876: J.F. Fleet documents inscriptions
1902: Conservation begins under John Marshall
1986: UNESCO World Heritage site

Key Features of Vijayanagara

Water Management: Tanks, canals, aqueducts in arid region
Fortifications: Multiple lines enclosing agricultural land
Architecture: Blend of indigenous and Indo-Islamic styles
Royal Center: Mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal, elephant stables
Sacred Center: Virupaksha and Vitthala temples with massive gopurams
Urban Planning: Distinct zones (royal, sacred, urban), chariot streets
Economic Prosperity: Thriving bazaars, international trade

AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA (C. FOURTEENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY)