BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS (C. EIGHTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)

1. A MOSAIC OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

1.1 The integration of cults

Two key processes in religious developments:

• Dissemination of Brahmanical ideas through Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit
• Brahmanas accepting and reworking beliefs/practices of other social groups

1.2 Difference and conflict

• Tantric practices were widespread, open to all castes/genders
• Vedic deities (Agni, Indra) became marginal while Puranic deities (Vishnu, Shiva) gained prominence
• Conflicts between Vedic traditionalists and Tantric practitioners
• Tension between devotees of different deities (Vishnu vs Shiva)
• Relations with Buddhism/Jainism often strained

2. POEMS OF PRAYER: EARLY TRADITIONS OF BHAKTI

2.1 The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

• Earliest bhakti movements (6th century CE)
• Alvars - devotees of Vishnu; Nayanars - devotees of Shiva
• Travelled singing hymns in Tamil, identified sacred shrines

2.2 Attitudes towards caste

• Protest against caste system and Brahmanical dominance
• Bhaktas came from all social backgrounds including "untouchables"
• Alvar compositions called "Tamil Veda", equated with Sanskrit Vedas

2.3 Women devotees

• Andal (woman Alvar) - composed widely sung verses as beloved of Vishnu
• Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Shiva devotee) - extreme asceticism
• Challenged patriarchal norms by renouncing social obligations

2.4 Relations with the state

• Opposition to Buddhism/Jainism in Tamil bhakti hymns
• Chola rulers (9th-13th centuries) supported bhakti traditions
• Built magnificent Shiva temples (Chidambaram, Thanjavur)
• Introduced singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples
• Consecrated metal images of saints like Appar, Sambandar

3. THE VIRASHAIVA TRADITION IN KARNATAKA

• Emergence in 12th century led by Basavanna (minister in Kalachuri court)
• Followers called Virashaivas or Lingayats (wearers of linga)
• Beliefs and practices:
  • Worship Shiva as linga, wear small linga in silver case
  • No cremation - ceremonial burial (belief in union with Shiva after death)
  • Challenged caste system and pollution concepts
  • Questioned theory of rebirth
  • Approved post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage
• Teachings preserved in vachanas (sayings) in Kannada

4. RELIGIOUS FERMENT IN NORTH INDIA

• Rajput states emerged with Brahmanas in important positions
• Other leaders like Naths, Jogis, Siddhas gained ground (often from artisan groups)
• Questioned Vedic authority, used local languages
• Coming of Turks and Delhi Sultanate (13th century) changed power dynamics
• Arrival of sufis was significant development

5. NEW STRANDS IN THE FABRIC: ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

5.1 Faiths of rulers and subjects

• Arab conquest of Sind (711 CE), later Delhi Sultanate (13th century)
• Concept of zimmi (protected people) extended to Hindus in India
• Rulers often flexible - gave land grants to Hindu/Jaina/Christian institutions

5.2 The popular practice of Islam

• Five pillars of Islam: shahada, namaz, zakat, saum, hajj
• Diverse practices based on sects (Sunni/Shia) and local customs
• Example: Khojahs (Ismaili sect) used ginan devotional poems in regional languages
• Arab traders in Kerala adopted Malayalam and matrilineal customs

5.3 Names for communities

• Terms "Hindu" and "Muslim" not commonly used initially
• Migrants identified by origin: Turushka (Turks), Tajika (Tajikistan)
• General term mlechchha for those not observing caste norms

6. THE GROWTH OF SUFISM

6.1 Khangahs and silsilas

• Sufism (tasawwuf) - mystical Islamic tradition protesting materialism
• By 11th century, organized around khanqahs (hospices) led by shaikh/pir
• Silsilas (spiritual chains) linking masters to disciples back to Prophet
• After death, shaikh's tomb (dargah) became pilgrimage site (ziyarat)
• Death anniversary called urs ("marriage" with God)

6.2 Outside the khanqah

• Some mystics like Qalandars, Madaris rejected khanqahs
• Called be-shari'a (against Islamic law) vs ba-shari'a sufis
• Practiced extreme asceticism, celibacy, ignored rituals

7. THE CHISHTIS IN THE SUBCONTINENT

7.1 Life in the Chishti khanqah

• Most influential sufi order in India from late 12th century
• Example: Shaikh Nizamuddin's khanqah in Delhi (14th century)
• Features: open kitchen (langar), futuh (unasked charity)
• Visitors from all walks of life including poets like Amir Khusrau
• Adopted local practices like bowing, yogic exercises

7.2 Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali

• Pilgrimage to dargahs to seek barakat (spiritual grace)
• Most revered: Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer) - "Gharib Nawaz"
• Akbar visited Ajmer 14 times, offered gifts
• Sama' (mystical music) integral to Chishtis, qawwali developed

7.3 Languages and communication

• Used local languages: Hindavi, Punjabi (Baba Farid), Dakhani
• Genres: prem-akhyan (allegorical love stories), lullabies, wedding songs
• Example: Padmawat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi

7.4 Sufis and the state

• Chishtis maintained distance but accepted unsolicited grants
• Sultans set up auqqf (charitable trusts) for hospices
• Kings sought legitimation from sufis (auliya could intercede with God)
• Example: dargah of Shaikh Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri

8. NEW DEVOTIONAL PATHS: DIALOGUE AND DISSENT

8.1 Kabir (14th-15th centuries)

• Verses compiled in Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali, Adi Granth Sahib
• Used sant bhasha and ulatbansi (upside-down sayings)
• Drew on Islamic (Allah, Khuda) and Vedantic (alakh, nirakar) terms
• Criticized both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy
• Legacy claimed by both Hindus and Muslims

8.2 Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

• Born in Punjab, studied Persian, travelled widely
• Advocated nirguna bhakti - rejected rituals, image worship
• Emphasized repeating Divine Name through shabads (hymns)
• Organized followers into sangat (congregation)
• Successors compiled Adi Granth Sahib (includes hymns of other saints)
• 10th Guru Gobind Singh established Khalsa Panth with 5 symbols

8.3 Mirabai (15th-16th centuries)

• Rajput princess devoted to Krishna
• Defied husband and in-laws, became wandering saint
• Composed intense emotional bhajans
• Preceptor was Raidas (leather worker) - defied caste norms

9. RECONSTRUCTING HISTORIES OF RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS

Sources used by historians:

• Sculpture and architecture (contextual understanding needed)
• Textual sources in multiple languages and styles
• Sufi literature types:
  1. Treatises/manuals (e.g., Kashf-ul-Mahjub)
  2. Malfuzat (conversations of saints, e.g., Fawa'id-al-Fu'ad)
  3. Maktubat (letters, e.g., Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani)
  4. Tazkiras (biographies, e.g., Siyar-ul-Auliya)

Challenges: Many traditions continue today, requiring sensitive analysis of changes over time.