Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (C. Tenth to Seventeenth Century)

1. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

1.1 From Khwarizm to the Punjab

• Born in 973 CE in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan)
• Well-educated in languages: Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Sanskrit
• Familiar with Greek philosophy through Arabic translations
• Taken to Ghazni as hostage in 1017 by Sultan Mahmud
• Developed interest in India, learned Sanskrit, studied with Brahmanas
• Likely travelled in Punjab and northern India

1.2 The Kitab-ul-Hind

• Written in Arabic, simple and lucid style
• Voluminous text divided into 80 chapters covering various subjects:
  • Religion and philosophy
  • Festivals
  • Astronomy
  • Alchemy
  • Manners and customs
  • Social life
  • Weights and measures
  • Iconography
  • Laws
  • Metrology (science of measurement)
• Distinctive chapter structure: question → description based on Sanskrit traditions → comparison with other cultures
• Intended audience: people living along frontiers of subcontinent
• Critical of existing translations of Indian texts, aimed to improve them

4. Making Sense of an Alien World: Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition

4.1 Overcoming Barriers to Understanding

Al-Biruni identified several barriers:

1. Language: Sanskrit was very different from Arabic/Persian
2. Religious differences: Contrast between Hinduism and Islam
3. Insularity of local population: Self-absorption of Indians

Despite these barriers, he relied heavily on Brahmanical texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti, etc.)

4.2 Al-Biruni's Description of the Caste System

• Tried to find parallels in other societies (e.g., ancient Persia's four social categories)
• Noted Islam's emphasis on equality
• Disapproved of the concept of pollution as contrary to nature
• Described varna system based on Brahmanical texts:
  • Brahmins (from head of Brahman)
  • Kshatriyas (from shoulders and hands)
  • Vaishyas (from thigh)
  • Shudras (from feet)
• Recognized that in practice, the system was less rigid than texts suggested

2. Ibn Battuta's Rihla

2.1 An Early Globe-Trotter

• Moroccan traveller born in Tangier (1304-1377)
• From educated family specializing in Islamic law (shari'a)
• Valued experiential knowledge over book learning
• Before India, had travelled to Mecca, Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, East Africa
• Reached Sind in 1333, attracted by Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reputation
• Appointed qazi (judge) of Delhi, later imprisoned, then sent as envoy to China
• Extensive travels in India: Malabar coast, Maldives (stayed 18 months as qazi), Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam, Sumatra, China
• Returned home in 1347 after about 30 years of travel

2.2 The "Enjoyment of Curiosities"

• Recorded detailed observations of new cultures, peoples, beliefs
• Travel was arduous and hazardous:
  • 40 days from Multan to Delhi
  • 50 days from Sind to Delhi
  • Frequent attacks by robbers
• Local ruler had his stories recorded upon return

5. Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar

5.1 The Coconut and the Paan

Ibn Battuta provided detailed descriptions of unfamiliar items:

• Coconut: Compared to date-palms, described its resemblance to human head
• Paan (betel leaf): Described cultivation and chewing with areca nut and chalk

5.2 Ibn Battuta and Indian Cities

• Described cities as prosperous with exciting opportunities
• Delhi: vast city with great population, strong fortifications
• Daulatabad: rivaled Delhi in size
• Bazaars were hubs of economic, social, cultural activities
• Indian agriculture productive due to fertile soil (two crops/year)
• Subcontinent well-integrated in inter-Asian trade networks
• Indian textiles (cotton, muslin, silk) in great demand

5.3 A Unique System of Communication

• Well-developed infrastructure for trade (inns, guest houses)
• Efficient postal system:
  • Horse-post (ulug): stations every 4 miles
  • Foot-post (dawa): 3 stations per mile with runners carrying rods with bells
• News could reach Delhi from Sind in 5 days vs. 50 days for regular travel

3. François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference

3.1 Comparing "East" and "West"

• French doctor, political philosopher, historian (1620-1688)
• In India 1656-1668, associated with Mughal court
• Physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, later to Danishmand Khan
• Wrote accounts comparing India unfavorably with Europe
• Works dedicated to Louis XIV of France
• Writings became extremely popular in Europe

6. Bernier and the "Degenerate" East

6.1 The Question of Landownership

• Bernier's key argument: lack of private property in land in Mughal India
• Believed crown ownership of land was harmful:
  • Landholders couldn't pass land to children
  • No incentive for long-term investment
  • Prevented emergence of "improving" landlords
  • Led to ruination of agriculture, oppression of peasantry
• Described Indian society as having no middle class - just very rich and very poor
• Contrast with Mughal documents which describe land revenue as "remuneration of sovereignty"
• Bernier's views influenced Western thinkers:
  • Montesquieu's concept of "oriental despotism"
  • Marx's "Asiatic mode of production"

6.2 A More Complex Social Reality

• Despite criticisms, Bernier noted:
  • Prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade
  • Flow of precious metals into India for manufactured goods
  • Some regions extremely fertile (especially Bengal)
  • Production of high-quality goods (carpets, brocades, embroideries)
• Described imperial karkhanas (workshops) with specialized artisans
• About 15% population lived in towns (higher than Western Europe at time)
• Incorrectly described Mughal cities as "camp towns" dependent on imperial court
• Actually diverse urban centers:
  • Manufacturing towns
  • Trading towns
  • Port towns
  • Sacred centers
• Merchant organizations (mahajans, nagarsheth)
• Professional classes: physicians, teachers, lawyers, artists

7. Women, Slaves, Sati and Labourers

Women in Travellers' Accounts

• Travellers often focused on condition of women
• Slavery was common and taken for granted:
  • Slaves openly sold in markets
  • Used as gifts (Ibn Battuta gave slaves as presents)
  • Differentiation among slaves - some skilled in music/dance
  • Female slaves used to spy on nobles
  • Slaves used for domestic labor, palanquin carrying
  • Prices low, especially for female domestic slaves
• Bernier particularly focused on sati practice:
  • Some women embraced death cheerfully
  • Others were forced (described case of 12-year-old widow)
• Women's roles broader than just sati:
  • Crucial in agricultural and non-agricultural production
  • Merchant women participated in commerce, even took disputes to court
  • Not confined to private spaces

Key Questions for Review

Answer in 100-150 words:

1. Write a note on the Kitab-ul-Hind.
2. Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India.
3. Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier's account.
4. Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn Battuta.
5. What were the elements of the practice of sati that drew the attention of Bernier?

Write a short essay (250-300 words):

6. Discuss Al-Biruni's understanding of the caste system.
7. Do you think Ibn Battuta's account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres? Give reasons for your answer.
8. Discuss the extent to which Bernier's account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.

Map Work:

On an outline map of the world mark the countries visited by Ibn Battuta. What are the seas that he may have crossed?