Class 12 History Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)

1. A Glimpse of Sanchi

• Discovered in 1818, one of the best preserved Buddhist monuments
• French and English wanted to take gateways to museums but only took plaster casts
• Preserved due to efforts of Begums of Bhopal (Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum)
• John Marshall's work on Sanchi funded by Sultan Jehan Begum

2. The Background: Sacrifices and Debates

2.1 The Sacrificial Tradition

• Early Vedic traditions (1500-1000 BCE) focused on sacrifices to deities like Agni, Indra
• Rigveda hymns chanted during sacrifices for cattle, sons, health
• Later (1000-500 BCE) elaborate sacrifices like rajasuya and ashvamedha performed by kings

2.2 New Questions

• Upanishads (6th century BCE onwards) explored meaning of life, rebirth, ultimate reality
• People questioned sacrificial traditions and authority of Vedas

2.3 Debates and Discussions

• 64 sects/schools of thought mentioned in Buddhist texts
• Debates held in kutagarashalas (huts with pointed roofs)
• Teachers like Mahavira and Buddha questioned Vedic authority, emphasized individual agency

3. Beyond Worldly Pleasures: The Message of Mahavira

• Mahavira (6th century BCE) was 24th tirthankara in Jaina tradition
• Key concept: Entire world is animated (even stones, water have life)
• Ahimsa (non-injury) central to Jaina philosophy
• Cycle of rebirth shaped by karma, overcome through asceticism
• Five vows: non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession

3.1 The Spread of Jainism

• Spread across India, literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil
• Early stone sculptures of tirthankaras found throughout subcontinent

4. The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

• Siddhartha (Buddha) was Sakya clan prince, sheltered upbringing
• Four Sights: old man, sick man, corpse, mendicant - led to renunciation
• Attained enlightenment after rejecting extreme asceticism, meditating
• Became Buddha (Enlightened One), taught dhamma (righteous path)

5. The Teachings of the Buddha

• World is transient (anicca) and soulless (anatta)
• Sorrow (dukkha) intrinsic to human existence
• Path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence
• Social world as human creation, advised humane governance
• Individual effort key to liberation (nibbana)

6. Followers of the Buddha

• Sangha: organization of monks (bhikkhus) living simply on alms
• Women later admitted (first was Buddha's foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami)
• Therigatha: verses by bhikkhunis showing women's spiritual experiences
• Followers from all social groups, equality within sangha
• Internal functioning based on gana-sangha traditions (consensus, voting)

7. Stupas

7.1 Why were stupas built?

• Sacred sites with relics of Buddha or objects he used
• Ashokavadana mentions Asoka distributing relics for stupa construction
• By 2nd century BCE, stupas built at Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath

7.2 How were stupas built?

• Donations from kings (Satavahanas), guilds (ivory workers), individuals
• Inscriptions record donors' names, occupations, origins

7.3 The structure of the stupa

• Anda: semi-circular mound representing world egg
• Harmika: balcony-like structure (abode of gods)
• Yashti: mast with chhatri (umbrella)
• Railing separates sacred from secular
• Worshippers enter east gate, circumambulate clockwise

8. "Discovering" Stupas: The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi

• Amaravati stupa discovered 1796, sculptures taken to museums (Elliot marbles)
• H.H. Cole advocated in situ preservation but failed for Amaravati
• Sanchi survived because:
  • Three gateways still standing when discovered 1818
  • Bhopal rulers' protection
  • Changed attitudes toward preservation

9. Sculpture

9.1 Stories in stone

• Depictions of Jataka stories (e.g., Vessantara Jataka)
• Interpreted by comparing with textual evidence

9.2 Symbols of worship

• Early period: Buddha represented through symbols
  • Empty seat: meditation
  • Stupa: mahaparinibbana
  • Wheel: first sermon
  • Tree: enlightenment

9.3 Popular traditions

• Shalabhanjika: woman causing trees to flower (auspicious symbol)
• Animals: elephants (strength, wisdom), others for lively scenes
• Gajalakshmi: goddess associated with elephants, possibly merged with Maya
• Serpent motifs from popular traditions

10. New Religious Traditions

10.1 The development of Mahayana Buddhism

• 1st century CE: Emergence of savior concept
• Bodhisattvas: compassionate beings helping others
• Image worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas
• Called Mahayana ("great vehicle"), older tradition termed Hinayana ("lesser vehicle")

10.2 The growth of Puranic Hinduism

• Vaishnavism (Vishnu worship) and Shaivism (Shiva worship)
• Bhakti: devotion as bond between god and worshipper
• Vaishnavism: 10 avatars of Vishnu saving world from evil
• Shiva represented by linga or human form with symbolic attributes
• Puranas (compiled mid-1st millennium CE) contained stories of deities

10.3 Building temples

• Early temples: small square garbhagriha with single doorway
• Later additions: shikhara (tower), assembly halls, elaborate sculptures
• Rock-cut temples: Barabar caves (3rd century BCE), Kailashnatha at Ellora (8th century CE)

11. Can We "See" Everything?

11.1 Grappling with the unfamiliar

• 19th century European scholars initially misunderstood Indian sculpture
• Compared with Greek art, valued Gandhara Buddha images most

11.2 If text and image do not match...

• Example: Mahabalipuram rock sculpture variously interpreted as:
  • Descent of Ganga (natural cleft as river)
  • Arjuna's penance from Mahabharata
• Many rituals and practices not permanently recorded