Class 12 History Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns
Early States and Economies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE)

1. Prinsep and Piyadassi

• James Prinsep (1830s) deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts
• Discovered king Piyadassi ("pleasant to behold") in inscriptions, later identified as Asoka
• Inscriptions provided new direction to early Indian political history research

2. The Earliest States

2.1 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• 6th century BCE - major turning point in Indian history
• Associated with early states, cities, iron use, coinage, and growth of Buddhism/Jainism
• Important mahajanapadas: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti
• Most ruled by kings, some were oligarchies (ganas/sanghas) where power was shared
• Each had fortified capital cities

2.2 First Amongst the Sixteen: Magadha

• Became most powerful mahajanapada between 6th-4th centuries BCE
• Reasons for power:
  • Highly productive agriculture
  • Access to iron mines (Jharkhand)
  • Elephants for army
  • Ganga and tributaries for communication
• Ambitious kings: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda
• Capitals: Initially Rajagaha (Rajgir), later shifted to Pataliputra (Patna)

3. An Early Empire - The Mauryas

3.1 Finding Out About the Mauryas

• Sources:
  • Archaeological finds and sculpture
  • Megasthenes' account (Greek ambassador)
  • Arthashastra (attributed to Kautilya/Chanakya)
  • Later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature
  • Asokan inscriptions (most valuable)
• Asoka's inscriptions propagated dhamma (moral principles)

3.2 Administering the Empire

• Five major political centers: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujiayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri
• Administration:
  • Control strongest near capital and provincial centers
  • Important trade routes and resource centers chosen
  • Military organization with six subcommittees (navy, transport, foot-soldiers, horses, chariots, elephants)
  • Dhamma mahamatta appointed to spread dhamma

3.3 How Important Was the Empire?

• Lasted about 150 years (relatively short in Indian history)
• Did not encompass entire subcontinent
• Control not uniform throughout empire
• New chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged by 2nd century BCE

4. New Notions of Kingship

4.1 Chiefs and Kings in the South

• Stable kingdoms in Deccan and further south (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas in Tamilakam)
• Sources: Early Tamil Sangam texts
• Satavahanas (western/central India) and Shakas (northwest) derived revenue from trade

4.2 Divine Kings

• Kushanas (1st century BCE-1st century CE) identified with deities
• Colossal statues found in Mathura and Afghanistan shrines
• Adopted title "devaputra" (son of god)
• Gupta Empire (4th century) depended on samantas (local lords)
• Prashastis (poetic eulogies) composed for kings like Samudragupta

5. A Changing Countryside

5.1 Popular Perceptions of Kings

• Jataka stories reflect strained king-subject relations
• High taxes led peasants to abandon villages for forests

5.2 Strategies for Increasing Production

• Shift to plough agriculture (iron-tipped ploughshare in fertile valleys)
• Introduction of transplantation for paddy cultivation
• Irrigation through wells, tanks, and occasionally canals

5.3 Differences in Rural Society

• Growing differentiation:
  • Landless laborers, small peasants, large landholders
  • Gahapati (Pali texts) - head of household controlling resources
  • Vellalar (large landowners), uzhavar (ploughmen), adimat (slaves) in Tamil areas
• Control over land became crucial issue

5.4 Land Grants and New Rural Elites

• From early centuries CE, land grants recorded on copper plates
• Most grants to religious institutions or Brahmanas
• Example: Prabhavati Gupta (daughter of Chandragupta II) granted village of Danguna
• Debate among historians:
  • Strategy to extend agriculture to new areas
  • Or sign of weakening political power

6. Towns and Trade

6.1 New Cities

• Urban centers emerged from 6th century BCE
• Located along trade routes: riverine (Pataliputra), land (Ujiayini), coastal (Puhar)
• Mathura was important commercial, cultural, political center

6.2 Urban Populations: Elites and Craftspersons

• Artefacts found: Northern Black Polished Ware, ornaments, tools, weapons
• Votive inscriptions mention occupations: washers, weavers, scribes, carpenters, goldsmiths, etc.
• Guilds (shrenis) organized craft production and trade

6.3 Trade in the Subcontinent and Beyond

• Extensive trade networks by 6th century BCE
• Overland to Central Asia, overseas to Africa, West Asia, Southeast Asia, China
• Goods traded: spices (especially pepper), textiles, medicinal plants, metals, stones
• Successful merchants became very wealthy

6.4 Coins and Kings

• Early coins: punch-marked coins (6th century BCE onwards)
• Indo-Greeks first to issue coins with ruler names/images (2nd century BCE)
• Kushanas issued largest hoards of gold coins (1st century CE)
• Roman coins found in south India indicate trade connections
• Gupta coins remarkable for purity, facilitated long-distance trade
• Decline in gold coins after 6th century CE (debated reasons)

7. Back to Basics: How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

7.1 Deciphering Brahmi

• Most Indian scripts derived from Brahmi
• European scholars worked backwards from modern scripts
• James Prinsep deciphered Asokan Brahmi in 1838

7.2 How Kharosthi Was Read

• Deciphered using coins of Indo-Greek kings with Greek and Kharosthi scripts
• Identified as Prakrit language

7.3 Historical Evidence from Inscriptions

• Asoka used titles (devanampiya, piyadassi) rather than name in some inscriptions
• Historians must assess truthfulness of claims in inscriptions
• Words in brackets added by epigraphists to clarify meaning

8. The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

• Technical limitations: faint engravings, damaged inscriptions
• Meaning of words may be specific to time/place
• Many inscriptions not yet deciphered or published
• Much has not survived
• Focus on grand events, not daily life
• Perspective of those who commissioned inscriptions
• Need to be combined with other sources