Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones

The Harappan Civilization All 11 Topics with Detailed Subtopics

1. Introduction to Harappan Civilisation

The Harappan Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE) was one of the world's earliest urban cultures, located in the Indus River valley.

Key Features:

  • Urban Planning: Grid layouts, standard bricks (4:2:1 ratio)
  • Writing System: Undeciphered script with 400+ symbols
  • Trade Networks: With Mesopotamia, Oman, Afghanistan

Chronology:

Early Harappan (6000-2600 BCE): Agricultural villages
Mature Harappan (2600-1900 BCE): Urban peak (Mohenjodaro, Harappa)
Late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE): Decline phase

2. Subsistence Strategies

Food Sources:

  • Crops: Wheat, barley, pulses, sesame, millets (Gujarat), rare rice
  • Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats (domesticated); fish, wild game

Agricultural Technology:

  • Ploughs: Terracotta models found at Banawali
  • Irrigation: Canals (Shortughai), wells, reservoirs (Dholavira)
  • Crop Rotation: Furrow marks at Kalibangan show two crops

Food Processing:

  • Saddle querns for grinding grains
  • Special "curry stones" for spices

3. Mohenjodaro: Planned Urban Center

City Layout:

  • Citadel: Elevated western section with public buildings
  • Lower Town: Residential area with grid-pattern streets

Architectural Features:

  • Great Bath: Waterproof tank (12m × 7m × 2.4m) with steps
  • Drainage: Covered brick drains with inspection holes
  • Houses: Courtyard-centered, private wells, bathrooms
  • Warehouse: Massive storage facility on citadel

Construction:

  • Estimated 4 million person-days for foundations
  • Uniform brick sizes across all Harappan sites

4. Tracking Social Differences

Burial Evidence:

  • Most graves simple pits, some brick-lined
  • Grave goods vary: pottery, jewelry (shell, jasper beads)
  • No evidence of royal burials like Egyptian pyramids

Luxury Items:

  • Materials: Gold, carnelian, lapis lazuli, faience
  • Distribution: Concentrated in large cities (Mohenjodaro, Harappa)
  • Examples: Copper mirrors, elaborate bead necklaces

Utilitarian Objects:

  • Stone tools, clay pottery found at all sites
  • Spindle whorls indicate textile production

5. Craft Production

Specialized Centers:

  • Chanhudaro: Bead-making, metalworking (7 hectare site)
  • Nageshwar/Balakot: Shell-working (near coast)
  • Lothal: Stone blade industry

Bead Making:

  • Materials: Carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, gold
  • Process: Chipping → grinding → polishing → drilling
  • Microbeads: Steatite powder molded (under 1mm diameter)

Other Crafts:

  • Pottery: Wheel-made, painted designs
  • Metalwork: Copper/bronze tools, vessels
  • Textiles: Cotton evidence from Mohenjodaro

6. Procuring Raw Materials

Local Materials:

  • Clay for pottery and bricks
  • Timber from nearby forests

Imported Materials:

  • Lapis Lazuli: From Afghanistan (Shortughai)
  • Copper: From Oman (nickel traces match) and Rajasthan
  • Carnelian: From Gujarat (Bharuch)
  • Gold: Possibly from Karnataka

Procurement Methods:

  • Direct access to resource areas (Balakot for shells)
  • Expeditions to mining regions (Khetri for copper)
  • Trade networks with distant regions

7. Long-Distance Trade

Trade Partners:

  • Mesopotamia: Called Harappans "Meluhha"
  • Oman: Copper trade (Magan in Mesopotamian texts)
  • Bahrain: Intermediate trading post (Dilmun)

Exported Goods:

  • Carnelian beads
  • Lapis lazuli
  • Copper
  • Exotic woods

Transport:

  • Bullock carts (terracotta models)
  • Boats/ships (depicted on seals)
  • Overland and coastal routes

8. Seals, Script & Weights

Seals:

  • Made of steatite (soapstone)
  • Animal motifs: Unicorn, bull, elephant
  • Used for trade authentication (sealings on clay)

Script:

  • 400+ symbols, right-to-left writing
  • Found on seals, pottery, tools
  • Remains undeciphered

Weights:

  • Made of chert stone
  • Binary system (1, 2, 4, 8...) for small weights
  • Decimal system for larger weights

9. Political Authority

Evidence of Governance:

  • Uniformity in artifacts across region
  • Standardized weights and measures
  • Large-scale public works (city walls, baths)

Theories:

  • Single State: Similarities suggest centralized control
  • Multiple Rulers: City-states like Mesopotamia
  • No Rulers: Possible egalitarian society

Controversies:

  • "Priest-King" statue may represent ruler or deity
  • No clear palaces or royal burials found

10. Decline of Harappan Civilisation

Possible Causes:

  • Environmental: Drying of Saraswati River, climate change
  • Economic: Breakdown of trade networks
  • Social: Overpopulation, resource depletion

Archaeological Evidence:

  • Abandonment of cities by 1900 BCE
  • Disappearance of writing, seals, weights
  • Shift to rural settlements (Late Harappan)

Controversial Theories:

  • Aryan Invasion: Debunked by recent DNA evidence
  • Massacre at Mohenjodaro: Skeletons may not be from same period

11. Discovering Harappan Civilisation

Early Finds:

  • 1856: British engineers used Harappan bricks for railway
  • 1875: Alexander Cunningham documented first seal

Major Excavations:

  • 1921: Daya Ram Sahni began Harappa excavations
  • 1922: R.D. Banerji discovered Mohenjodaro
  • 1924: John Marshall announced discovery to world

Modern Techniques:

  • Stratigraphy (Wheeler's method)
  • Archaeogenetics (DNA from Rakhigarhi skeletons)
  • 3D facial reconstructions