Introduction
India faces several environmental and socio-economic problems that require geographical analysis to understand their spatial patterns, causes, and impacts. This chapter examines four major issues:
- Environmental Pollution
- Urban Waste Disposal
- Rural-Urban Migration
- Land Degradation
1. Environmental Pollution
A. Air Pollution
Sources:
- Vehicular emissions (major in urban areas)
- Industrial emissions
- Thermal power plants
- Construction activities
- Burning of fossil fuels
Impacts:
- Respiratory diseases
- Reduced visibility
- Damage to crops and vegetation
- Corrosion of buildings
- Global warming
Critical Areas: Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and other metropolitan cities have severe air pollution problems, especially in winter months.
B. Water Pollution
Sources:
- Domestic sewage (major in urban areas)
- Industrial effluents
- Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides)
- Religious offerings and rituals
- Oil spills
Impacts:
- Waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid)
- Eutrophication of water bodies
- Loss of aquatic biodiversity
- Groundwater contamination
- Reduced availability of clean drinking water
Critical Areas: Ganga and Yamuna rivers are among the most polluted. Industrial clusters like Kanpur, Varanasi, and Delhi have severe water pollution.
C. Noise Pollution
Sources:
- Traffic noise (major in cities)
- Industrial activities
- Construction work
- Loudspeakers and public address systems
- Airports and railway stations
Impacts:
- Hearing impairment
- Sleep disturbances
- Increased stress levels
- Reduced work efficiency
- Cardiovascular problems
Critical Areas: Metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore have noise levels consistently above permissible limits.
2. Urban Waste Disposal
With rapid urbanization, waste management has become a major environmental challenge in Indian cities.
Types of Urban Waste:
- Biodegradable: Food waste, garden waste (40-60%)
- Recyclable: Paper, glass, metals, plastics (30-40%)
- Inert waste: Construction debris, dirt (10-20%)
- Hazardous waste: Medical waste, e-waste, chemicals (1-5%)
Current Disposal Methods:
- Landfilling (most common method)
- Incineration (limited use)
- Composting (for biodegradable waste)
- Recycling (growing but still limited)
Problems in Waste Management:
- Inadequate collection and transportation
- Limited landfill space in cities
- Mixing of hazardous waste with general waste
- Poor segregation at source
- Health hazards for waste pickers
- Groundwater contamination from landfills
Solutions:
- Segregation of waste at source
- Promotion of recycling and reuse
- Composting of biodegradable waste
- Waste-to-energy plants
- Public awareness campaigns
- Strict enforcement of waste management rules
3. Rural-Urban Migration
Rural-urban migration is a significant demographic phenomenon in India with important geographical implications.
Push Factors (from rural areas):
- Poverty and unemployment
- Lack of basic facilities (education, healthcare)
- Agricultural distress
- Natural calamities (droughts, floods)
- Land fragmentation
Pull Factors (to urban areas):
- Employment opportunities
- Better living standards
- Educational facilities
- Healthcare services
- Entertainment and lifestyle
Consequences of Migration:
For Urban Areas:
- Overcrowding in cities
- Pressure on infrastructure
- Growth of slums
- Increased pollution
- Rise in crime rates
For Rural Areas:
- Shortage of labor
- Ageing population
- Remittances improve some families' conditions
- Brain drain of educated youth
Government Initiatives:
- MGNREGA (to provide rural employment)
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (affordable housing)
- Smart Cities Mission (to improve urban infrastructure)
- Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (urban livelihood mission)
4. Land Degradation
Land degradation refers to the reduction in the quality of land resources due to natural or human-induced factors.
Major Causes:
Natural Causes:
- Soil erosion by wind and water
- Desertification
- Salinization
- Natural disasters (landslides, floods)
Human Causes:
- Deforestation
- Overgrazing
- Unsustainable agricultural practices
- Mining activities
- Urbanization and industrialization
Types of Land Degradation in India:
Water Erosion
Affects ~68% of degraded land (Himalayan region, Chambal ravines)
Wind Erosion
Affects ~10% (Thar Desert region)
Salinization
Affects ~6% (Indus-Ganga plains, coastal areas)
Waterlogging
Affects ~4% (Punjab, Haryana irrigation areas)
Mining Wasteland
Affects ~1% (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha)
Others
Industrial waste, urban sprawl (~11%)
Conservation Measures:
- Afforestation and reforestation
- Contour ploughing and terracing
- Shelter belts to check wind erosion
- Controlled grazing
- Watershed management
- Sustainable agricultural practices
Conclusion
The geographical perspective helps us understand the spatial dimensions and regional variations of these environmental and socio-economic problems in India. Addressing these issues requires:
- Integrated planning and policy interventions
- Community participation and awareness
- Technological solutions
- Sustainable development practices
- Balanced regional development
Only through concerted efforts at individual, community and government levels can these challenges be effectively tackled.