Introduction to Human Development
Human development refers to the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life. It involves changes in physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains that occur in an integrated manner.
Quote: "I wish I could travel by the road that crosses the baby's mind, and out beyond all bounds..." — Rabindranath Tagore
Meaning of Development
Development is influenced by an interplay of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes:
- Biological processes: Genetic inheritance affecting physical growth (height, weight, brain development)
- Cognitive processes: Mental activities like thought, perception, attention, problem solving
- Socio-emotional processes: Changes in interactions with others, emotions, and personality
Life-Span Perspective on Development
Key assumptions of the Life-Span Perspective (LSP):
- Lifelong: Development occurs across all age groups from conception to old age
- Interwoven processes: Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes interact
- Multi-directional: Some aspects increase while others may decrease
- Plastic: Skills and abilities can be improved throughout life
- Contextual: Influenced by historical, cultural, and social conditions
- Multi-disciplinary: Studied by psychology, anthropology, sociology, neuroscience
- Context-dependent: Responds to inherited traits and environmental contexts
Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution
Growth: Increase in size of body parts (measurable, e.g., height, weight)
Development: Process of change throughout life cycle with direction and relationships
Maturation: Changes following orderly sequence dictated by genetic blueprint
Evolution: Species-specific changes passed through generations (very slow pace)
Factors Influencing Development
Development is influenced by the interaction of heredity and environment:
- Genotype: Actual genetic material inherited from parents
- Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from gene-environment interaction
- Environment includes physical surroundings, social interactions, and cultural context
- Parents influence both genes and environment for their children
Context of Development (Bronfenbrenner's Model)
Development occurs within multiple environmental systems:
- Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, peers, teachers)
- Mesosystem: Relations between microsystems (how parents relate to teachers)
- Exosystem: Indirect influences (parent's workplace affecting family life)
- Macrosystem: Cultural context
- Chronosystem: Socio-historical circumstances and life events
Stages of Development
Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth)
- Lasts about 40 weeks
- Affected by maternal factors (age, nutrition, emotional state)
- Threats include maternal infections, teratogens (drugs, alcohol, radiation)
Infancy (Birth to 2 years)
Physical Development:
- Rapid brain development
- Motor development follows universal sequence (cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends)
- Reflexes present at birth (rooting, Moro, grasp, Babinski) disappear as voluntary control develops
| Reflex |
Description |
Developmental Course |
| Rooting |
Turning head when touched on cheek |
Disappears between 3-6 months |
| Moro |
Arms outward when startled |
Disappears in 6-7 months |
| Grasp |
Fingers close around object |
Disappears in 3-4 months |
| Babinski |
Toes fan out when foot stroked |
Disappears in 8-12 months |
Cognitive Development (Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage):
- Understands world through senses and actions
- Develops object permanence (understanding objects exist when not seen)
- Begins symbolic thought by end of stage
Socio-emotional Development:
- Forms attachment with caregivers
- Harlow's studies showed importance of contact comfort over nourishment
- Erikson's stage: Trust vs Mistrust (first year crucial for attachment)
Childhood (2-12 years)
Physical Development:
- Follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends
- Growth slows compared to infancy
- Motor skills develop (gross motor like running; fine motor like writing)
| Age |
Gross Motor Skills |
Fine Motor Skills |
| 3 years |
Hopping, jumping, running |
Build blocks, pick objects with fingers |
| 4 years |
Climb stairs with alternating feet |
Fit jigsaw puzzles |
| 5 years |
Run hard, enjoy races |
Good eye-hand coordination |
Cognitive Development:
- Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):
- Symbolic thought develops
- Egocentrism (difficulty seeing others' perspectives)
- Animism (attributing life to inanimate objects)
- Centration (focusing on one aspect)
- Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):
- Logical thought about concrete events
- Can perform mental operations (conservation tasks)
- Less egocentric
Gender and Sex Roles
Sex: Biological dimension (male/female)
Gender: Social dimension of being male/female
Gender identity develops by age 3. Gender roles are learned through:
- Parental reinforcement of gender-appropriate behavior
- Peer influence and media stereotypes
- Internal motivation to conform to cultural standards
Socio-emotional Development:
- Erikson's stage: Initiative vs Guilt (develop sense of purpose or feel guilty about independence)
- Self-understanding progresses from physical to psychological characteristics
- Moral development begins (Kohlberg's stages)
Adolescence (12-18 years)
Physical Development:
- Puberty marks beginning (sexual maturity)
- Growth spurt (earlier in girls)
- Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics
Cognitive Development (Piaget's Formal Operational Stage):
- Abstract and logical thought
- Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
- Adolescent egocentrism:
- Imaginary audience (feeling constantly observed)
- Personal fable (sense of uniqueness)
Socio-emotional Development:
- Erikson's stage: Identity vs Role Confusion
- Key task: Forming identity (values, beliefs, commitments)
- Increased peer influence but parents remain important
- Vocational commitment becomes important
Major Concerns:
- Delinquency: Antisocial behaviors often linked to family issues
- Substance Abuse: Vulnerability to drugs, alcohol, smoking
- Eating Disorders: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia more common in females
Adulthood and Old Age
Early Adulthood (20s-30s):
- Tasks: Career development, marriage, parenthood
- Adjustments to work life and family roles
Middle Adulthood (40s-60s):
- Physical changes: Declining vision, hearing, changes in appearance
- Cognitive changes: Some memory decline but wisdom may increase
Old Age (65+):
- Adjustments to retirement, changing family roles
- Potential feelings of insecurity and dependency
- Cultural variations in treatment of elderly
- Successful aging involves maintaining health, relationships, and cognitive fitness
Key Terms
Adolescence: Transitional period between childhood and adulthood
Attachment: Emotional bond between infant and caregiver
Cephalocaudal trend: Development from head to tail region
Concrete operational stage: Logical thought about concrete objects (7-11 years)
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing others' perspectives
Gender: Social dimension of being male/female
Identity: Sense of self including values and beliefs
Menarche: First menstrual period
Object permanence: Understanding objects exist when not seen
Puberty: Period of sexual maturation
Sensorimotor stage: Cognitive stage (0-2 years) using senses and actions
Teratogens: Environmental agents causing developmental abnormalities
Summary
- Development is lifelong, influenced by biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional factors
- Prenatal development can be affected by maternal factors and environmental hazards
- Infancy is marked by rapid physical growth, sensorimotor cognition, and attachment formation
- Childhood involves concrete operational thinking, gender role development, and moral reasoning
- Adolescence brings physical changes, abstract thinking, and identity formation
- Adulthood involves career development, family roles, and adjustments to aging
- Successful aging depends on maintaining health, relationships, and cognitive activity
Review Questions
- What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?
- Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development.
- What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
- How do socio-cultural factors influence development?
- Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.
- What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
- What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence?
- What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?
Project Ideas
- Interview people from different life stages (20-35, 35-60, 60+) about major life transitions
- Observe and compare play behaviors of children at different developmental stages
- Research and present on cultural variations in treatment of the elderly