Psychology - Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Introduction to Psychological Research

Psychological research aims to study experiences, behaviors, and mental processes using scientific methods. Psychologists use various research methods including observation, experimentation, surveys, psychological testing, and case studies to understand human behavior.

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Psychological research has five main goals:

1. Description: Accurately describing behavior or phenomena.
2. Prediction: Forecasting behavior based on observed relationships.
3. Explanation: Identifying causes or determinants of behavior.
4. Control: Modifying behavior by changing antecedent conditions.
5. Application: Applying knowledge to improve people's lives.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Scientific research in psychology follows a systematic process:

1. Conceptualizing a Problem: Selecting a topic, narrowing focus, and developing research questions or hypotheses.
2. Collecting Data: Developing research design, selecting participants, choosing methods and tools.
3. Drawing Conclusions: Analyzing data using statistical procedures.
4. Revising Research Conclusions: Verifying hypotheses and revising theories based on findings.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

Psychological research follows two main approaches:

• Scientific Approach: Studies human behavior as predictable and measurable, focusing on observable behavior.
• Interpretive Approach: Emphasizes understanding subjective experiences and meanings in specific contexts.

Nature of Psychological Data

Psychological data includes information about individuals' covert/overt behavior, subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data types include:

• Demographic information (age, gender, education)
• Physical information (environmental conditions)
• Physiological data (heart rate, brain activity)
• Psychological information (intelligence, personality, emotions)

Important Methods in Psychology

1. Observational Method

Systematic observation differs from casual observation:

• Selection: Choosing specific behaviors to observe
• Recording: Documenting observations systematically
• Analysis: Interpreting recorded observations

Types of Observation:

• Naturalistic vs Controlled: Observing in natural settings vs laboratory
• Participant vs Non-participant: Observer as part of group vs external observer

2. Experimental Method

Establishes cause-effect relationships between variables:

• Variables: Independent (manipulated) and dependent (measured) variables
• Groups: Experimental group (receives treatment) and control group (no treatment)
• Control Techniques: Elimination, constancy, matching, counter-balancing

Types of Experiments:

• Laboratory Experiments: Highly controlled but may lack external validity
• Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings with less control
• Quasi-Experiments: Using naturally occurring groups as experimental/control groups

3. Correlational Research

Examines relationships between variables without manipulation:

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase/decrease together
• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while other decreases
• Zero Correlation: No relationship between variables

4. Survey Research

Used to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts:

• Personal Interviews: Structured or unstructured face-to-face interactions
• Questionnaires: Written questions with open-ended or closed-ended responses
• Telephone Surveys: Quick but may have response bias

5. Psychological Testing

Standardized tools to assess individual differences:

• Characteristics: Objectivity, standardization, reliability, validity
• Types:
  • By language: Verbal, non-verbal, performance tests
  • By administration: Individual or group tests
  • By difficulty: Speed tests (time-limited) or power tests (no time limit)

6. Case Study

In-depth study of individuals, groups, or institutions:

• Uses multiple methods (interviews, observations, tests)
• Provides rich qualitative data but difficult to generalize
• Used by Freud and Piaget in developing theories

Analysis of Data

Two main approaches to data analysis:

• Quantitative Method: Statistical analysis of numerical data
• Qualitative Method: Narrative analysis and content analysis of descriptive data

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

1. Lack of true zero point in psychological measurement
2. Relative nature of psychological tools (context-dependent)
3. Subjective interpretation of qualitative data

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

Key ethical principles researchers must follow:

1. Voluntary Participation: Freedom to participate or withdraw
2. Informed Consent: Participants must understand study details
3. Debriefing: Explaining study purpose after participation
4. Sharing Results: Providing feedback to participants
5. Confidentiality: Protecting participants' privacy

Review Questions

1. What are the main goals of scientific enquiry in psychology?
2. Describe the steps involved in conducting psychological research.
3. How does experimental method differ from correlational research?
4. What are the advantages and limitations of observational method?
5. Explain the characteristics of a good psychological test.
6. Why is case study method important in psychology?
7. What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in research?

Project Ideas

1. Conduct a survey comparing after-school activities of different age groups
2. Design an experiment to test the effect of recitation on learning poetry
3. Observe and record behavior patterns in a public setting using naturalistic observation