Chapter 2: Nationalism in India

Introduction

• Modern nationalism in India was tied to the anti-colonial movement, fostering unity through shared struggles against British oppression.
• Colonialism affected groups differently, leading to varied experiences and notions of freedom.
• Congress under Mahatma Gandhi aimed to unite diverse groups, though conflicts arose due to differing aspirations.
• This chapter focuses on the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements from the 1920s, exploring participation and nationalist imagination.

1. The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation

1.1 Impact of the First World War

• Economic and political changes: War increased defence expenditure, financed by loans, raised taxes (customs duties, income tax), doubling prices (1913-1918), causing hardship.
• Forced recruitment in rural areas and crop failures (1918-21) led to food shortages, famines, and an influenza epidemic, killing 12-13 million (1921 census).
• Post-war, people’s hopes for relief were unmet, fueling discontent.

1.2 The Idea of Satyagraha

• Satyagraha: Mahatma Gandhi’s method of mass agitation emphasizing truth and non-violence to fight injustice, appealing to oppressors’ conscience.
• Gandhi believed non-violence could unite Indians; practiced in South Africa against racist laws.
• In India: Organized satyagraha in Champaran (1917, Bihar) against plantation oppression, Kheda (1917, Gujarat) for revenue relief, and Ahmedabad (1918) for cotton mill workers.

1.3 The Rowlatt Act

• Rowlatt Act (1919): Allowed detention without trial for two years, passed despite Indian opposition, sparking nationwide protests.
• Gandhi launched non-violent civil disobedience, starting with a hartal on 6 April 1919.
• Protests included rallies, strikes, shop closures; British repressed nationalists, barring Gandhi from Delhi and arresting leaders in Amritsar.
• Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): General Dyer fired on a crowd in Amritsar, killing hundreds, aiming to instill fear.
• Post-massacre: Widespread violence, repression (humiliation, bombings); Gandhi halted the movement due to escalating violence.

1.4 Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

• Khilafat Movement: Formed to defend the Ottoman Khalifa’s powers post-WWI; led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
• Gandhi saw it as a chance to unite Hindus and Muslims under a unified national movement.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Proposed by Gandhi at Calcutta Congress (September 1920), adopted at Nagpur (December 1920).
• Strategy: Surrender titles, boycott British services, schools, courts, and foreign goods; escalate to civil disobedience if repressed.
• Internal Congress debates: Some opposed boycotts, fearing violence; a compromise was reached.

2. Differing Strands within the Movement

2.1 The Movement in the Towns

• Middle-class participation: Students left schools, teachers resigned, lawyers quit, and council elections were boycotted (except in Madras by the Justice Party).
• Economic impact: Foreign cloth imports halved (Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore, 1921-1922), boosting Indian textile production.
• Challenges: Khadi was expensive, unaffordable for the poor; alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop, leading to a gradual return to British systems.

2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside

• Awadh Peasant Movement: Led by Baba Ramchandra against high rents, begar, and evictions; demanded revenue reduction and landlord boycotts.
• Oudh Kisan Sabha (1920): Formed by Jawaharlal Nehru and others, integrating peasant struggles into Non-Cooperation.
• Peasant actions (1921): Attacked talukdars, looted bazaars, invoking Gandhi’s name for tax refusal and land redistribution, deviating from Congress’s non-violent approach.
• Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat against revenue hikes, gaining widespread sympathy.
• Gudem Hills Rebellion: Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju in Andhra Pradesh against forest restrictions; used guerrilla tactics, inspired by Gandhi but advocated force; Raju was executed in 1924.

2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations

• Assam Plantation Workers: Saw swaraj as freedom of movement and retaining village ties, restricted by the Inland Emigration Act (1859).
• Defied authorities, left plantations believing in Gandhi Raj; stranded due to strikes, beaten by police.
• Interpreted swaraj as an end to suffering, linking local struggles to the national movement.

3. Towards Civil Disobedience

3.1 Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation

• Chauri Chaura (1922): Violent clash led Gandhi to withdraw Non-Cooperation, believing satyagrahis needed more training.
• Internal Congress divide: C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party for council politics; younger leaders like Nehru and Bose pushed for radical agitation.

3.2 Economic and Political Context

• Economic Depression: Agricultural prices fell from 1926, collapsing post-1930, making revenue payments difficult for peasants.
• Simon Commission (1928): All-British commission to review constitutional reforms, met with “Go back Simon” protests.
• Lord Irwin’s vague dominion status offer (1929) and Round Table Conference plan dissatisfied Congress.
• Lahore Congress (1929): Under Nehru, demanded Purna Swaraj, declaring 26 January 1930 as Independence Day.

3.3 The Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement

• Salt as a Symbol: Gandhi chose salt to unite all classes against the oppressive salt tax and monopoly.
• Salt March (1930): 240-mile march from Sabarmati to Dandi (12 March–6 April), with 78 volunteers; Gandhi broke the salt law on 6 April.
• Civil Disobedience Movement: Involved breaking colonial laws, boycotting foreign goods, picketing liquor shops, refusing taxes, and violating forest laws.
• British response: Arrested leaders, attacked satyagrahis, leading to violent clashes (e.g., Peshawar, Sholapur); 100,000 arrested.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931): Gandhi agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference; government released prisoners.
• Movement relaunched (1932) after conference failure but lost momentum by 1934.

3.4 Participants’ Perspectives

• Rich Peasants (Patidars, Jats): Joined to protest high revenues; disappointed by 1931 withdrawal, many did not rejoin in 1932.
• Poor Peasants: Sought remission of rent; joined radical movements, but Congress avoided “no rent” campaigns, creating tension.
• Business Classes: Supported movement for economic freedom; formed FICCI (1927); later wary of militancy and socialism.
• Industrial Workers: Limited participation; selective adoption of Gandhian ideas in strikes; Congress avoided workers’ demands to retain industrialist support.
• Women: Large-scale participation in marches, salt-making, picketing; saw national service as a duty, though Congress limited their leadership roles.

3.5 Limits of Civil Disobedience

• Dalits: Limited participation; Congress ignored them to avoid offending high-caste Hindus; Gandhi’s “Harijan” campaign clashed with Ambedkar’s demand for separate electorates.
• Poona Pact (1932): Reserved seats for Depressed Classes in general electorate, resolving Gandhi-Ambedkar dispute.
• Muslims: Alienated post-Khilafat; Hindu-Muslim tensions and Congress’s Hindu associations reduced participation; Muslim League’s concerns about minority status grew.

4. The Sense of Collective Belonging

• Nationalism grew through united struggles and cultural processes like history, folklore, symbols, and prints.
• Bharat Mata: Symbolized nation; created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (“Vande Mataram”), painted by Abanindranath Tagore (1905) as a spiritual figure.
• Folklore Revival: Nationalists collected folk tales and songs to preserve traditional culture; Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal, Natesa Sastri in Madras.
• Flags: Swadeshi tricolour (1906) and Gandhi’s Swaraj flag (1921) symbolized defiance.
• Reinterpretation of History: Highlighted ancient Indian achievements to counter British narratives, fostering pride and resistance.
• Challenge: Hindu-centric symbols alienated non-Hindu communities, limiting inclusivity.

5. Quit India Movement

• Context: Failure of Cripps Mission and WWII discontent led to the Quit India Movement (1942).
• Resolution: Passed on 8 August 1942 in Bombay; Gandhi’s “Do or Die” speech called for non-violent mass struggle.
• Mass Participation: Involved students, workers, peasants; leaders like Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and women like Matangini Hazra.
• British repression: Took over a year to suppress the movement.

Key Dates

• 1918-19: Baba Ramchandra organizes UP peasants.
• April 1919: Rowlatt Act hartal; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre.
• January 1921: Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement launched.
• February 1922: Chauri Chaura; Non-Cooperation withdrawn.
• May 1924: Alluri Sitaram Raju arrested.
• December 1929: Lahore Congress demands Purna Swaraj.
• March 1930: Salt March begins; Civil Disobedience launched.
• 1930: Ambedkar forms Depressed Classes Association.
• March 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• December 1931: Second Round Table Conference.
• 1932: Civil Disobedience relaunched; Poona Pact.
• 1942: Quit India Movement.