Gender, Religion and Caste

Chapter Overview

This chapter examines three social differences that can become social divisions and inequalities: gender, religion and caste. It asks how these differences are expressed in politics and whether their political expression is healthy or harmful in a democracy.

1. Gender and Politics

Gender division is a form of hierarchical social division found widely across societies. The chapter explains that it is not simply based on biology; it is shaped by social expectations and stereotypes.

Sexual Division of Labour

In many families, women are expected to do housework and care for children while men are expected to work outside the home. This is called the sexual division of labour. The chapter points out that women also perform paid work and physically demanding work, but a large amount of their household labour remains unpaid and less visible.

Feminist Movements

Women organised and agitated for equal rights, voting rights, better educational and career opportunities and, in some cases, equality in personal and family life. These movements are called feminist movements.

Women’s Disadvantage in India

• Women have historically faced lower access to education and higher studies.
• Women perform substantial unpaid domestic work.
• Women face discrimination and unequal opportunities in many areas.
• Women’s representation in political institutions has historically been low.

Women’s Political Representation

The chapter notes that women’s representation in legislatures has been low. It gives the example that women elected to the Lok Sabha reached 14.36% in 2019, while their share in State Assemblies was less than 5% at the time discussed in the textbook.

At the local level, the Panchayati Raj system reserves one-third of seats for women in Panchayats and Municipalities. The chapter notes that this has resulted in more than 10 lakh elected women representatives in rural and urban local bodies.

2. Religion, Communalism and Politics

Religious differences are common in many societies. Unlike gender differences, religious differences are often expressed directly in politics. The chapter distinguishes between legitimate political expression of religious concerns and communal politics.

Religion in Politics — When It Is Not Communal

• Gandhiji argued that politics should be guided by moral values, not by separation from ethical concerns.
• Human rights groups may demand protection for religious minorities.
• Women’s movements may demand reform of family laws that discriminate against women.
• Citizens may express political needs and interests as members of a religious community.

Such political activity is not necessarily communal if the state treats all religions equally and seeks to prevent discrimination and oppression.

3. Communalism

Communalism begins when religion is treated as the principal basis of social community and political interests are presented in exclusive or partisan terms. It can involve presenting one religion as superior, setting one religious group against another, or seeking political domination by one religious community.

Four Forms of Communalism

4. Secular State

The Constitution makers were aware of the challenge of communalism and chose the model of a secular state.

Main Constitutional Features

1. No official religion: The Indian state does not give official status to one religion.
2. Freedom of religion: Individuals and communities have freedom to profess, practise and propagate religion, or not to follow any religion.
3. No discrimination: The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
4. State intervention for equality: The state may intervene in religious matters to ensure equality within religious communities; the chapter gives abolition of untouchability as an example.

5. Caste and Politics

Caste Inequalities

Caste division has a special historical connection with India. The traditional caste system involved hereditary occupational divisions, caste-based social communities, restrictions on marriage and food-sharing, and a hierarchy of castes. Groups treated as “outcastes” faced exclusion and untouchability.

Social reformers and political leaders such as Jotiba Phule, Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar and Periyar Ramaswami Naicker worked against caste inequalities.

Changes in the Caste System

Economic development, urbanisation, literacy and education, occupational mobility and changes in rural power relations have weakened many traditional caste practices. Yet caste has not disappeared. The chapter notes that caste remains relevant in marriage, social relations and economic inequality, and the effects of historical advantages and disadvantages continue.

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

The chapter notes that the Census did not then count Other Backward Classes (OBCs); a 2004–05 National Sample Survey estimate placed their population at around 41%.

Caste in Politics

Caste can influence politics in several ways:

• Political parties consider caste composition when selecting candidates.
• Governments often seek representation of different castes and tribes.
• Parties and candidates may appeal to caste sentiment to gain support.
• Universal adult franchise has helped historically disadvantaged groups participate politically and demand a share of power.

Why Caste Alone Cannot Determine Election Results

1. No parliamentary constituency has a clear majority of one single caste, so candidates need support from multiple communities.
2. No party receives all votes from every member of a caste.
3. Several parties may field candidates from the same caste.
4. People’s economic interests, gender, party preference, government performance and leader popularity also influence voting.

Politics in Caste

The relationship also works in the other direction: politics influences caste identities. (1)Caste groups may broaden themselves by incorporating neighbouring castes,(2) form coalitions with other groups and (3)develop new political identities such as “backward” and “forward” caste groups.

6. Quick Revision — Exam Focus

1. Gender division is socially constructed through expectations and stereotypes.
2. Sexual division of labour assigns different types of work to men and women.
3. Feminist movements demand equality of rights and opportunities.
4. Women’s representation in legislatures has historically been low; local bodies reserve one-third of seats for women as described in the chapter.
5. Religious concerns can be expressed politically without being communal.
6. Communalism treats religion as the principal basis of social and political community.
7. Communalism can appear as everyday prejudice, political dominance, political mobilisation and violence.
8. India is a secular state with no official religion.
9. The Constitution protects freedom of religion and prohibits discrimination on religious grounds.
10. Caste involved hereditary occupations, hierarchy, restrictions and exclusion.
11. Modernisation has weakened many traditional caste practices, but caste inequalities persist.
12. Caste influences candidate selection and political mobilisation, but caste alone does not determine election outcomes.

7. Interactive MCQ Quiz

Select one option for each question and click Check Score.

8. Chapter Summary

Gender, religion and caste are important social differences in India. Gender division has produced unequal roles and opportunities, while feminist movements have challenged discrimination. Religion can legitimately enter politics through moral concerns and demands for equality, but communalism becomes problematic when religion is used to create exclusive political identities or domination. India’s secular Constitution provides equal religious freedom and prohibits discrimination. Caste has a long history of hierarchy and exclusion; although modern social and economic changes have weakened many traditional practices, caste inequalities continue. Caste also enters politics through candidate selection, mobilisation and demands for representation. The chapter’s broader democratic lesson is that social differences need not destroy democracy; their political expression can help address inequality when it respects equal citizenship and avoids domination or exclusion.